With World oil demand increasing in the face of limited supplies, increasing attention is turning towards non-conventional oil sources as a means to relieve the pressure exerted on conventional stocks. However, non-conventional oils are hard to extract, process and transport. Several technologies are already at work with differing levels of success, recovery ranging from as low as 5% through to more than 70%. This paper reviews the range of Enhanced Oil Recovery techniques, broadly classified into either thermal or non-thermal methods, and their applicability to the extraction of heavy oils and bitumens. Advantages and disadvantages are presented in terms of their recovery factors, requirements, limitations and economics. The potential benefits of additional downhole catalytic upgrading of heavy oils are also explored.

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Poly(lactic acid) (PLA) was degraded to methyl lactate (Me-La) by an imino monophenolate Zn(1) 2 catalyst in the presence of tetrahydrofuran, as the solvent, and methanol, as the protic source. As well as solution-based polymerization and degradation, catalyst stability was assessed and discussed. The chemical degradation of four different commercial samples of PLA, varying in molecular weight, was studied. The effect of PLA concentration (0.05−0.2 g mL −1 ), reaction temperature (40−130 °C), and catalyst concentration (4−16 wt %) on conversion, yield, and selectivity were studied and results statistically analyzed. Mass-transfer limitations were assessed by utilizing two different PLA particle sizes and altering the stirring speed. Results revealed that the main variables affecting PLA degradation are temperature and catalyst concentration. It was possible to observe Me-La formation even at 40 °C, although the reaction times were significantly longer when compared to the highest temperatures. Conversions of 100%, as determined by 1H NMR spectroscopy and gel permeation chromatography, were possible in short times (<15 min) depending on temperature and catalyst concentration. A reaction mechanism for the production of Me-La from PLA, which considers the formation of chain-end groups as intermediates is presented and values for the kinetic constants are determined from the model. The activation energy for the initial degradation step was in the range 39−65 kJ mol −1 , decreasing with increasing catalyst loading.

Continual reduction of landfill space along with rising CO 2 levels and environmental pollution, are global issues that will only grow with time if not correctly addressed. The lack of proper waste management infrastructure means gloablly commodity plastics are disposed of incorrectly, leading to both an economical loss and environmental destruction. The bioaccumulation of plastics and microplastics can already be seen in marine ecosystems causing a negative impact on all organisms that live there, ultimately microplastics will bioaccumulate in humans. The opportunity exists to replace the majority of petroleum derived plastics with bioplastics (bio-based, biodegradable or both). This, in conjunction with mechanical and chemical recycling is a renewable and sustainable solution that would help mitigate climate change. This review covers the most promising biopolymers PLA, PGA, PHA and bio-versions of conventional petro-plastics bio-PET, bio-PE. The most optimal recycling routes after reuse and mechanical recycling are: alcoholysis, biodegradation, biological recycling, glycolysis and pyrolysis respectively.

As eries of Zn II complexes, based on propylenediamineS chiff bases, have been prepared and fully characterized. X-ray crystallography and NMR spectroscopy identified significant differences in the solid and solution state for the Zn II species. All complexes have been applied to the ring-opening polymerization of l-lactidew ith emphasis on industrial conditions. High conversion and good molecularw eight control were generally achievablef or Zn(A-D) 2 ,a nd high-molecular-weight poly(lactic acid) (PLA) was prepared in 1min at a1 0000:1:33 [lactide]/ [Zn]/[BnOH] loading. The more active Zn II catalysts were also appliedt oP LA degradation to alkyl lactateu nder mild conditions. Zn(A-B) 2 demonstrated high activity and selectivity in this process with PLA being consumed within 1h at 50 8C. Zn(C-D) 2 were shown to be less active, and these observations can be relatedt ot he catalysts' structure and the degradation mechanism. Initialr esultsf or the degradation of poly(ethylene terephthalate) and mixed feeds are also presented, highlighting the broader applicability of the systems presented.Owing to the inevitable depletion of fossil fuel resources, and inherentc arbon emissions, alternatives to petrochemical plastics are desperately needed. [1] Poly(lactic acid) (PLA) is apotential replacement for fossil-fuel-derived plastics used for packaging applications. [2,3] PLA has the added advantageo f being biocompatible and therefore suitable for biomedical applications. [4,5] Because it is derived from annually harvested crops, PLA is biorenewable and has promising green credentials in terms of CO 2 emissions and life-cycle assessment. [6,7] High-molecular-weight PLA is preferentially prepared from the cyclic dimer of lactic acid, lactide (LA), through ring-opening polymerization (ROP). [8] CurrentP LA research seeks to reduce energy/material input of LA monomer synthesis, [9][10][11][12] demonstrate ande lucidate stereoselective initiation [13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29] and prepare robust initiators to compete with Sn(Oct) 2 under industrial conditions. [30][31][32][33][34] Plastic waste andp ollution are af urther 21 st century challenge forboth academia and industry.Although PLA is biodegradable under high-temperature industrial conditions, it will not readily degrade in the natural environmenta nd therefore will contribute to the millions of tonnes of waste in landfill and in oceans. [35][36][37] End-of-life plastic waste managementi s key to tackling this issue, andi ti si mperative this is addressed for all aspiring materials such as PLA. For PLA, chemical recycling is ap articularly attractive route because it can produce value-added products such as alkyl lactates, lactic acid and acrylic acid. [38,39] These can be usefuli nt heir own right or used to reform LA, and therefore PLA, to facilitate ac ircular-economy approach. Lactic acid, for example, is regarded as ap latform chemical, and alkyl lactates are considered green solvents. [40][41][42][43][44] The conversion of PLA ...

Toe-to-heel air injection (THAI) and its catalytic version CAPRI are relatively new technologies for the recovery and upgrade of heavy oil and bitumen. The technologies combine horizontal production well, in situ combustion, and catalytic cracking to convert heavy feedstock into light oil down-hole. The deposition of asphaltenes, coke, and metals can drastically deactivate the catalyst in the CAPRI process. A fixed bed microreactor was used to experimentally simulate the conditions in the catalyst zone of the oil well of CAPRI. In this study, oil upgrading and catalyst deactivation in the CAPRI process were investigated in the temperature range of 350−425°C, pressure of 20 barg and residence time of 9.2 min. Additionally, a guard bed consisting of activated carbon particles prior to the active catalyst in a microreactor and/or the addition of hydrogen to the gas feed were used to minimize coke formation and catalyst deactivation through respectively removing and hydrocracking the coke precursors. It was found that depending on the upgrading temperature, the viscosity of the produced oil reduced significantly by 42−82% and (American Petroleum Institute) API gravity increased by ∼2 to 7°API relative to the feedstock of 0.49 Pa·s and 13°API, respectively. Conversely, the use of hydrogen further increased the API gravity by 2°API and the viscosity by 5.3%. Notably, the coke content of the catalyst reduced from 57.3 wt % in nitrogen to 34.8 wt % in hydrogen atmosphere. The use of a guard bed increased the API gravity of the produced oil by a further 2°and reduced the viscosity by an average of 8.5% further than achieved with the active HDS catalyst CoMo/alumina.

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in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com).The results of a combined experimental and simulation study on the flow regimes that can be encountered during spout-fluid bed operation are reported. A regime map for a three-dimensional (3D) spout-fluid bed was composed, employing spectral analysis of pressure drop fluctuations and fast video recordings. In addition, 3D Euler-Lagrangian computations were performed to assess the capability of the model to reproduce the experimentally observed flow regimes. Spectral analysis of pressure drop fluctuations revealed that for most investigated regimes the model is able to predict the appropriate regime. The frequency at which the largest power is found is overpredicted by the model in most cases. The remaining differences between the simulated and the experimentally observed bed behavior are most probably related to the representation of the effective fluid-particle interaction in the model, which relies on local spatial homogeneity. The simulation results were compared with velocity maps determined from particle trajectories acquired using positron emission particle tracking. The model accurately reproduces measured particle velocities, including their root mean square, for all investigated conditions and is therefore able to capture the details of the particle flow in various flow regimes.