Null hypothesis significance testing has been under attack in recent years, partly owing to the arbitrary nature of setting α (the decision-making threshold and probability of Type I error) at a constant value, usually 0.05. If the goal of null hypothesis testing is to present conclusions in which we have the highest possible confidence, then the only logical decision-making threshold is the value that minimizes the probability (or occasionally, cost) of making errors. Setting α to minimize the combination of Type I and Type II error at a critical effect size can easily be accomplished for traditional statistical tests by calculating the α associated with the minimum average of α and β at the critical effect size. This technique also has the flexibility to incorporate prior probabilities of null and alternate hypotheses and/or relative costs of Type I and Type II errors, if known. Using an optimal α results in stronger scientific inferences because it estimates and minimizes both Type I errors and relevant Type II errors for a test. It also results in greater transparency concerning assumptions about relevant effect size(s) and the relative costs of Type I and II errors. By contrast, the use of α = 0.05 results in arbitrary decisions about what effect sizes will likely be considered significant, if real, and results in arbitrary amounts of Type II error for meaningful potential effect sizes. We cannot identify a rationale for continuing to arbitrarily use α = 0.05 for null hypothesis significance tests in any field, when it is possible to determine an optimal α.

Assessments of potential exposure to fullerenes and their derivatives in the environment are important, given their increasing production and use. Our study focused on fate processes that determine the movement and bioavailability of fullerenes in soil. We evaluated the sorption, biodegradation, and plant uptake of C60 fullerene using (14)C-labeled C60 solutions in water produced by either solvent exchange with tetrahydrofuran or sonication/extended mixing in water. Organic carbon appeared to have an important influence on C60 soil sorption. The log Koc values for (14)C60 were equivalent for sandy loam and silt loam (3.55 log[mL/g]) but higher for loam (4.00 log[mL/g]), suggesting that other factors, such as pH, clay content and mineralogy, and cation exchange capacity, also influence C60 soil sorption. There was little (14)CO2 production in the silt loam or the sandy loam soil after 754 and 328 days, respectively, suggesting high resistance of C60 to mineralization in soil. Plant uptake was generally low (∼7%), with most of the uptaken (14)C accumulating in the roots (40-47%) and smaller amounts of accumulation in the tuber (22-23%), stem (12-16%), and leaves (18-22%). Our results indicate that C60 released to the environment will not be highly bioavailable but will likely persist in soil for extended periods.

Perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) have recently received increased research attention, particularly concerning aquatic organisms and in regions of exposure to aqueous film forming foams (AFFFs). Air Force bases historically applied AFFFs in the interest of fire training exercises and have since expressed concern for PFAS contamination in biota from water bodies surrounding former fire training areas. Six PFAS were monitored, including perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS), in aquatic species from 8 bayou locations at Barksdale Air Force Base in Bossier City, Louisiana (USA) over the course of 1 yr. The focus was to evaluate temporal and spatial variability in PFAS concentrations from historic use of AFFF. The PFOS concentrations in fish peaked in early summer, and also increased significantly downstream of former fire training areas. Benthic organisms had lower PFOS concentrations than pelagic species, contrary to previous literature observations. Bioconcentration factors varied with time but were reduced compared with previously reported literature values. The highest concentration of PFOS in whole fish was 9349 ng/g dry weight, with 15% of samples exceeding what is believed to be the maximum whole fish concentration reported to date of 1500 ng/g wet weight. Further studies are ongoing, to measure PFAS in larger fish and tissue-specific partitioning data to compare with the current whole fish values. The high concentrations presently observed could have effects on higher trophic level organisms in this system or pose a potential risk to humans consuming contaminated fish. Environ Toxicol Chem 2017;36:2022-2029. © 2016 SETAC.

The field of ecology is poised to take advantage of emerging technologies that facilitate the science. These shifts in mindset include thinking about data stewardship rather than data ownership, embracing transparency throughout the data life-cycle and project duration, and accepting critique in public. Though foreign and perhaps frightening at first, these changes in thinking stand to benefit the field of ecology by fostering collegiality and broadening access to data and findings. We present an overview of tools and best practices that can enable these shifts in mindset at each stage of the research process, including tools to support data management planning and reproducible analyses, strategies for soliciting constructive feedback throughout the research process, and methods of broadening access to final research products.