Resource selection is a fundamental ecological process impacting population dynamics and ecosystem structure. Understanding which factors drive selection is vital for effective species- and landscape-level management. We used resource selection probability functions (RSPFs) to study the influence of two forms of wolf (Canis lupus) predation risk, snow conditions and habitat variables on white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), elk (Cervus elaphus) and moose (Alces alces) resource selection in central Ontario's mixed forest French River-Burwash ecosystem. Direct predation risk was defined as the frequency of a predator's occurrence across the landscape and indirect predation risk as landscape features associated with a higher risk of predation. Models were developed for two winters, each at two spatial scales, using a combination of GIS-derived and ground-measured data. Ungulate presence was determined from snow track transects in 64 16- and 128 1-km(2) resource units, and direct predation risk from GPS radio collar locations of four adjacent wolf packs. Ungulates did not select resources based on the avoidance of areas of direct predation risk at any scale, and instead exhibited selection patterns that tradeoff predation risk minimization with forage and/or mobility requirements. Elk did not avoid indirect predation risk, while both deer and moose exhibited inconsistent responses to this risk. Direct predation risk was more important to models than indirect predation risk but overall, abiotic topographical factors were most influential. These results indicate that wolf predation risk does not limit ungulate habitat use at the scales investigated and that responses to spatial sources of predation risk are complex, incorporating a variety of anti-predator behaviours. Moose resource selection was influenced less by snow conditions than cover type, particularly selection for dense forest, whereas deer showed the opposite pattern. Temporal and spatial scale influenced resource selection by all ungulate species, underlining the importance of incorporating scale into resource selection studies.

Eleven populations of wapiti (Cervus elaphus) were analysed for genetic diversity using 12 microsatellite loci. Samples were taken from Vancouver Island, British Columbia; Burwash and French River herds in Ontario; Ya Ha Tinda Ranch, Alberta; and Banff, Elk Island, Jasper, Kootenay, Riding Mountain, Yellowstone and Yoho National Parks. Overall, wapiti populations have on average three to four alleles per locus and an average expected heterozygosity that ranged from 25.75 to 52.85%. The greatest genetic distances were observed between the Vancouver population and all other populations. Using the assignment test, Roosevelt wapiti (C. e. roosevelti Merriam 1897) assigned only to the Vancouver Island population. The distance and assignment values suggest a divergence of the Roosevelt wapiti from other populations and support the subspecific status for the Vancouver Island population. No evidence was found for the existence of unique Eastern wapiti (C. e. canadensis Erxleben 1777) in the Burwash or French River herds in Ontario. The overlapping distribution of genotypes from indigenous populations from Riding Mountain, Elk Island and Yellowstone National Parks suggests that wapiti were once a continuous population before settlers decimated their numbers. The lack of differentiation between these populations raises questions about the status of Manitoban (C. e.manitobensis Millais 1915) and Rocky Mountain (C. e.nelsoni Bailey 1935) subspecies.

Monitoring the distribution and movements of a species following reintroduction can aid resource managers in assessing release-site fidelity, rates of spread, initial project success, and feasibility of (or need for) future releases. We used radio-telemetry to monitor an entire founding population of 70 elk (Cervus elaphus) during 16 months following their reintroduction to eastern Ontario, Canada. At the end of the study, elk were widely scattered over a 27,000 km 2 area. Dispersal distances ranged from 2 to 142 km; 50% of animals moved >40 km from the release site. Dispersal distances differed by time periods and age but not sex. Calves dispersed significantly shorter distances than adults and many mature elk were isolated during the rut. In contrast to a random distribution model, movements had a strongly southwestern directional bias, perhaps owing to prevailing winds from the same direction. Mortality during the study period was 27%; the primary causes of known mortalities were emaciation, collision with automobiles, and illegal shooting. During the first 1 1/ 2 years, lack of releasesite fidelity and high dispersal coupled with animal-human conflicts and mortalities likely contributed to an initial lag in population growth. Resource managers planning animal reintroductions should consider using methodologies that enhance site fidelity following release.

Over a century has passed since elk were extirpated in eastern North America. During that time, numerous attempts to reintroduce elk into eastern North America have resulted in varying degrees of success and failure. An overview of restoration efforts during the last 100 years is presented here with emphasis on the differences in rates of population change among regions and differences in major causes of elk mortality during both the pre‐ and post‐acclimation periods. Approximately 40% of recorded elk reintroduction attempts in eastern North America resulted in failure, with the majority of these having occurred in the first half of the 20th century. Although rates of population change in elk were highly variable, they were not related to founding population size. Major causes of mortality varied among regions and should be considered in future reintroduction attempts.

We studied 2 years of postrelease telemetry data of elk (Cervus elaphus) translocated to their historic range limit in Ontario, Canada and sought to determine if postrelease movements were related to behavior, demography of released animals, or site-specific attributes such as length of holding period. During 1998-2004 we radiotracked 341 elk in 10 release groups via ground and aerial telemetry and monitored movement patterns relative to gender, age, and pre-release holding period (4-112 days). We found that elk that were held for short periods prior to release (4-11 days) moved longer distances than those subject to extended conditioning (17-112 days), suggesting that an extended conditioning period is beneficial from the standpoint of promoting philopatry. When all elk were pooled by sex and age class, male calves remained in closer proximity (8.0 ± 13.2 km) to release sites than adult females (19.1 ± 20.6 km), adult males (19.7 ± 15.1 km), and female calves (14.4 ± 20.4 km). Most calves dispersed in a southeasterly direction whereas adults tended to travel southwest. Our results reveal that elk movement characteristics are influenced by factors such as release protocol and group demographics; these findings provide further insight regarding appropriate release methods for restoring natural populations near their historical range limit.