Particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, ozone, carbon monoxide, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are among the outdoor air pollutants that are major factors in diseases, causing especially adverse respiratory effects in humans. On the other hand, the role of respiratory viruses in the pathogenesis of severe respiratory infections is an issue of great importance. The present literature review was aimed at assessing the potential effects of air pollutants on the transmission and severity of respiratory viral infections. We have reviewed the scientific literature regarding the association of outdoor air pollution and respiratory viruses on respiratory diseases. Evidence supports a clear association between air concentrations of some pollutants and human respiratory viruses interacting to adversely affect the respiratory system. Given the undoubted importance and topicality of the subject, we have paid special attention to the association between air pollutants and the transmission and severity of the effects caused by the coronavirus named SARS-CoV-2, which causes the COVID-19. Although to date, and by obvious reasons, the number of studies on this issue are still scarce, most results indicate that chronic exposure to air pollutants delays/complicates recovery of patients of COVID-19 and leads to more severe and lethal forms of this disease. This deserves immediate and in-depth experimental investigations.

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Undoubtedly, there is a tremendous concern regarding the new viral strain "Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2" (SARS-CoV-2) and its related disease known as COVID-19. The World Health Organization has stated that SARS-CoV-2 is mainly transmitted from person-to-person close contact, as well as by small aerosol respiratory droplets. Moreover, the results of some recent studies about the role of air pollution on the spread and lethality of the novel coronavirus suggest that air contaminants could be also transmission pathway of the virus. On the other hand, indirect transmission of the virus cannot be discarded. Among many sources of indirect transmission, there is the contamination of inert/inanimate surfaces. This manuscript was aimed at reviewing the scientific literature currently available in PubMed and Scopus. The results of the reviewed studies point out that SARS-CoV-2 can last on different surfaces from hours to a few days. However, rapid SARS-CoV-2 inactivation is possible by applying commonly available chemicals and biocides on inanimate surfaces. Consequently, although the presence of SARS-CoV-2 on inanimate surfaces can represent a potential route of the transmission, appropriate disinfection measures should reduce the possibilities of transmission of the coronavirus, and hence, significantly decrease the risks of COVID-19.

The dietary intake of 16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) (naphthalene, acenaphthylene, acenaphthene, fluorene, phenanthrene, anthracene, fluoranthene, pyrene, benz[a]anthracene, chrysene, benzo[b]fluoranthene, benzo[k]fluoranthene, benzo[a]pyrene, dibenz[a,h]anthracene, benzo[g,h,i]perylene, and indeno[1,2,3-c,d]pyrene) by the general population of Catalonia, Spain, was calculated. Concentrations of PAHs in food samples randomly acquired in seven cities of Catalonia from June to August 2000 were measured. Eleven food groups were included in the study. High-performance liquid chromatography was used to analyze PAHs. The dietary intakes of total and carcinogenic PAHs was calculated for five population groups: children, adolescents, male adults, female adults, and seniors. Among the analyzed PAHs, there was a predominance of phenanthrene (16.7 microg/kg) and pyrene (10.7 microg/kg). By food group, the highest levels of total PAHs were detected in cereals (14.5 microg/kg) and in meat and meat products (13.4 microg/kg). The mean estimated dietary intake of the sum of the 16 PAHs was as follows: male adults, 8.4 microg/day; adolescents, 8.2 microg/day; children, 7.4 microg/day; seniors, 6.3 microg/day; female adults, 6.3 microg/day. The calculated daily intake of PAHs would be associated with a 5/106 increase in the risk for the development of cancer in a male adult with a body weight of 70 kg.

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Tungstate is an oxyanion that has biological similarities to vanadate. In recent years, a number of studies have shown the antidiabetic effects of oral tungstate in animal models of diabetes. However, because of the tissue accumulation and potential toxicity derived from chronic administration of vanadium and tungsten compounds, the pharmacological use of vanadate or tungstate in the treatment of diabetes is not necessarily exempt from concern. In the context of a potential use in the treatment of human diabetes mellitus, the most relevant toxic effects of vanadium derivatives are reviewed and compared with those reported for tungsten. Hematological and biochemical alterations, loss of body weight, nephrotoxicity, immunotoxicity, reproductive and developmental toxicity, and behavioral toxicity have been reported to occur following exposure to vanadium compounds. Moreover, vanadium also has a mitogenic activity affecting the distribution of chromosomes during mitosis and inducing aneuploidy-related end points. In contrast to vanadate, studies about the toxic effects of tungstate are very scant. Early investigations in cats, rabbits, dogs, mice, and rats showed that tungstate was less toxic than vanadate when given intravenously. Although in vitro investigations showed a direct effect of tungstate on the embryo and fetus of mice at concentrations similar to those causing effects in vivo, information on the potential cellular toxicity of tungstate is particularly scarce. Taking into account the recent interest of tungstate as a new potential oral antidiabetic agent, an exhaustive evaluation of its toxicity in mammals is clearly necessary.

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