The Basidiomycota constitutes a major phylum of the kingdom Fungi and is second in species numbers to the Ascomycota. The present work provides an overview of all validly published, currently used basidiomycete genera to date in a single document. An outline of all genera of Basidiomycota is provided, which includes 1928 currently used genera names, with 1263 synonyms, which are distributed in 241 families, 68 orders, 18 classes and four subphyla. We provide brief notes for each accepted genus including information on classification, number of accepted species, type species, life mode, habitat, distribution, and sequence information. Furthermore, three phylogenetic analyses with combined LSU, SSU, 5.8s, rpb1, rpb2, and ef1 datasets for the subphyla Agaricomycotina, Pucciniomycotina and Ustilaginomycotina are conducted, respectively. Divergence time estimates are provided to the family level with 632 species from 62 orders, 168 families and 605 genera. Our study indicates that the divergence times of the subphyla in Basidiomycota are 406–430 Mya, classes are 211–383 Mya, and orders are 99–323 Mya, which are largely consistent with previous studies. In this study, all phylogenetically supported families were dated, with the families of Agaricomycotina diverging from 27–178 Mya, Pucciniomycotina from 85–222 Mya, and Ustilaginomycotina from 79–177 Mya. Divergence times as additional criterion in ranking provide additional evidence to resolve taxonomic problems in the Basidiomycota taxonomic system, and also provide a better understanding of their phylogeny and evolution.

Infrageneric relations of the genetically diverse milkcap genus Lactifluus (Russulales, Basidiomycota) are poorly known. Currently used classification systems still largely reflect the traditional, mainly morphological, characters used for infrageneric delimitations of milkcaps. Increased sampling, combined with small-scale molecular studies, show that this genus is underexplored and in need of revision. For this study, we assembled an extensive dataset of the genus Lactifluus, comprising 80 % of all known species and 30 % of the type collections. To unravel the infrageneric relationships within this genus, we combined a multi-gene molecular phylogeny, based on nuclear ITS, LSU, RPB2 and RPB1, with a morphological study, focussing on five important characteristics (fruit body type, presence of a secondary velum, colour reaction of the latex/context, pileipellis type and presence of true cystidia). Lactifluus comprises four supported subgenera, each containing several supported clades. With extensive sampling, ten new clades and at least 17 new species were discovered, which highlight the high diversity in this genus. The traditional infrageneric classification is only partly maintained and nomenclatural changes are proposed. Our morphological study shows that the five featured characteristics are important at different evolutionary levels, but further characteristics need to be studied to find morphological support for each clade. This study paves the way for a more detailed investigation of biogeographical history and character evolution within Lactifluus.

The Russulales is one of 12 major lineages recently elucidated by molecular sequence data in the homobasidiomycetes. The order is morphologically most diverse, containing a remarkable variety of sporophore forms including resupinate, discoid, effused-reflexed, clavarioid, pileate, or gasteroid and hymenophore configurations from smooth, poroid, hydnoid, lamellate, to labyrinthoid. Functionally these fungi are primarily saprotrophs but others are ectomycorrhizal, root parasites and insect symbionts. A phylogenetic analysis of the nuclear 5.8S, ITS2 and large-subunit rDNA genes comprises the best information to date on relationships of taxa within the Russulales. Two large sister groups encompassing 11-13 major clades have been recovered within the Russulales. Based on molecular and morphological data 12 families and approximately 80 genera have been identified, although placement of many taxa has not yet been determined. The two clades containing ectomycorrhizal taxa, corresponding to the Russulaceae and the Albatrellaceae, represent the greatest diversity of sporophore morphologies. The primarily pileate lamellate family Russulaceae is nested with resupinate species and also contains pileate sequestrate, gasteroid annulate and pleurotoid forms. Albatrellaceae similarly contains resupinate poroid, pileate poroid and pileate labyrinthoid sporophores. Presence of gloeoplerous hyphae containing fluid that typically stains black in sulfoaldehyde compounds is a synapomorphy for the Russulales. Amyloid reactions in spore or hyphal walls that occur frequently throughout the Russulales often are perceived as an obvious synapomorphy but are inconsistent. Approaches including sequencing functional genes, analysis of gene expression and biochemical analysis across the entire order are needed.

Lactarius volemus (Fr.: Fr.) Fr. is a well known and morphologically easily recognizable milkcap of the Northern hemisphere, forming ectomycorrhiza with both deciduous and coniferous trees. It was originally described from Europe, but is also reported in other continents. Although it is characterized by several unique macro- and micromorphological features, substantial variation in colour, lamellae spacing and changing and staining of the latex has been recorded and it is therefore considered as a putatively unresolved species complex. This study explores the concordance between morphological and phylogenetic species concepts within L. volemus sensu lato of northern Thailand, combining a critical morphological scrutiny with a multiple gene genealogy based on LSU, ITS and rpb2 nuclear sequences. Twelve strongly supported monophyletic clades and six terminal branches are discernable in all phylogenetic trees and represent 18 phylogenetic species. Six of the monophyletic clades can be morphologically distinguished and are described as new species: L. acicularis, L. crocatus, L. distantifolius, L. longipilus, L. pinguis and L. vitellinus. Five other clades also show some morphological differences, but these are too subtle and do not allow for a clear-cut species delimitation without the corroboration of molecular data. Lactarius volemus sensu lato of northern Thailand is therefore still considered as a partially cryptic species complex. Pleurolamprocystidia, pileipellis hairs and to a lesser degree also pileus colour are important diagnostic characteristics. Spore morphology, latex discoloration and pileus surface texture are less useful as diagnostic features. Whether this rich diversity is the result of in situ Pleistocene survival or post-glacial expansion and subsequent radiation, has yet to be revealed

This paper investigates species delimitation within the Lactarius gerardii species complex and explores its taxonomic and geographical extent. A combined molecular phylogeny based on ITS, LSU and rpb2 gene sequences is constructed and morphological characters are evaluated. While L. gerardii was originally described from North America, it has later been reported from all-over Asia. Therefore a worldwide sampling range was aimed at, including species exhibiting morphological affinities with L. gerardii.

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Mycorrhizal symbiosis between soil fungi and land plants is one of the most widespread and ecologically important mutualisms on earth. It has long been hypothesized that the Glomeromycotina, the mycorrhizal symbionts of the majority of plants, facilitated colonization of land by plants in the Ordovician. This view was recently challenged by the discovery of mycorrhiza-like associations with Mucoromycotina in several early diverging lineages of land plants. Utilizing a large, species-level database of plants’ mycorrhiza-like associations and a Bayesian approach to state transition dynamics we here show that the recruitment of Mucoromycotina is the best supported transition from a non-mycorrhizal state. We further found that transitions between different combinations of either or both of Mucoromycotina and Glomeromycotina occur at high rates, and found similar promiscuity among combinations that include either or both of Glomeromycotina and Ascomycota with a nearly fixed association with Basidiomycota. Our results portray an evolutionary scenario of evolution of mycorrhizal symbiosis with a prominent role for Mucoromycotina in the early stages of land plant diversification.

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