The adoption of multiscale approaches by the biomechanical community has caused a major improvement in quality in the mechanical characterization of soft tissues. The recent developments in elastography techniques are enabling in vivo and non-invasive quantification of tissues’ mechanical properties. Elastic changes in a tissue are associated with a broad spectrum of pathologies, which stems from the tissue microstructure, histology and biochemistry. This knowledge is combined with research evidence to provide a powerful diagnostic range of highly prevalent pathologies, from birth and labor disorders (prematurity, induction failures, etc.), to solid tumors (e.g., prostate, cervix, breast, melanoma) and liver fibrosis, just to name a few. This review aims to elucidate the potential of viscous and nonlinear elastic parameters as conceivable diagnostic mechanical biomarkers. First, by providing an insight into the classic role of soft tissue microstructure in linear elasticity; secondly, by understanding how viscosity and nonlinearity could enhance the current diagnosis in elastography; and finally, by compounding preliminary investigations of those elastography parameters within different technologies. In conclusion, evidence of the diagnostic capability of elastic parameters beyond linear stiffness is gaining momentum as a result of the technological and imaging developments in the field of biomechanics.

A novel torsional wave sensor designed to characterize mechanical properties of soft tissues is presented in this work. Elastography is a widely used technique since the 1990s to map tissue stiffness. Moreover, quantitative elastography uses the velocity of shear waves to achieve the shear stiffness. This technique exhibits significant limitations caused by the difficulty of the separation between longitudinal and shear waves and the pressure applied while measuring. To overcome these drawbacks, the proposed torsional wave sensor can isolate a pure shear wave, avoiding the possibility of multiple wave interference. It comprises a rotational actuator disk and a piezoceramic receiver ring circumferentially aligned. Both allow the transmission of shear waves that interact with the tissue before being received. Experimental tests are performed using tissue mimicking phantoms and cervical tissues. One contribution is a sensor sensitivity study that has been conducted to evaluate the robustness of the new proposed torsional wave elastography (TWE) technique. The variables object of the study are both the applied pressure and the angle of incidence sensor–phantom. The other contribution consists of a cervical tissue characterization. To this end, three rheological models have fit the experimental data and a static independent testing method has been performed. The proposed methodology permits the reconstruction of the mechanical constants from the propagated shear wave, providing a proof of principle and warranting further studies to confirm the validity of the results.

Pregnancy involves a gradual change in tissue consistency, where, as gestational age increases a drop in stiffness is noticeable. The extracellular matrix (ECM) of the cervix whose behavior is controlled by the collagen structure is reconfigured, due to hormonal and protein related factors that degraded it. There is an increase in cellular and water content. The collagen maintains a stable percentage, although the synthesis-solubility interaction causes a transformation in the network increasing its diameter and waviness, which destabilizes the mechanical integrity. Further understanding of the remodeling of the cervix becomes a key element in the progress against preterm birth. However, since the woman is in a very delicate state, the available information is scattered. The aim is to provide a framework where the variation of the histological properties is linked with the individual biomechanical evolution of the constituents; therefore a multiscale approach to the problem can be made. The results of different authors were reviewed to obtain values of each component depending on the gestational age, and then they were combined with the mechanical development of each variable obtained from the outputs of numerical simulations of another author. An additive function is proposed, in which the mechanical contribution of each constituent is added to a reference value established for a nonpregnant state. Results show how biochemistry models the mechanical behavior of the tissue through the histology and morphology of the ECM.

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