Although many studies analyzed effects of sustainability standards—such as Fairtrade or Rainforest Alliance—on smallholder farmers in developing countries, most did not sufficiently account for systematic differences between certified and noncertified farmers. Certified farmers are typically organized in cooperatives. When sampling only from a small number of cooperatives, as previous studies did, it is not easy to disentangle certification effects from possible cooperative effects. Here, we address this shortcoming by randomly sampling from a large number of cooperatives, thus better capturing existing institutional heterogeneity. In particular, we collect and use data from cocoa farmers in Côte d'Ivoire who are organized in Fairtrade‐certified and noncertified cooperatives. Regression models with instrumental variables show that Fairtrade has positive and significant effects on cocoa yields, prices, and living standards. These effects remain significant also after controlling for cooperative characteristics, but the magnitude of the estimates changes. We draw two conclusions. First, in Côte d'Ivoire, Fairtrade certification benefits farmers economically. Second, and more generally, cooperative characteristics are jointly correlated with certification and relevant outcomes, which needs to be accounted for to avoid bias when evaluating the benefits of sustainability standards in the small farm sector.
Achocolate bar bought in the United States might have been made in Belgium with cocoa from Côte d'Ivoire, almonds from Morocco, vanilla from Madagascar and sugar from Brazil. It is hard to know, however, whether these ingredients were grown on deforested land or harvested using forced or child labour. It's the same story for smartphones, clothes and cosmetics. Sourcing and manufacturing their components might have contaminated rivers, exposed workers to toxins or caused biodiversity loss.That's why, in February, the European Commission proposed a directive on corporate due diligence for sustainability. It sets out how companies operating in the European Union with more than 250 employees would be required to identify, prevent, mitigate and stop any negative impacts on the environment and on human rights embedded in their supply chains. Otherwise, they would face sanctions, fines and lawsuits.Other countries and organizations are discussing similar proposals, including the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. To be effective, such efforts must be consistent and well-reasoned. Policy frameworks are needed to extend and harmonize due diligence, and research is needed to support it.Such measures are necessary because existing policies are too limited in scope. For example, California's Transparency in Supply Chains Act of 2010 and the 2018 Australian Modern Laws to stamp out deforestation, pollution and child labour in global supply chains might have unintended consequences. Researchers need to investigate these effects.
The Mesoamerican Agroenvironmental Program (MAP-Norway) is a multi-dimensional rural development program implemented in Central America since 2009, working with smallholder families, producer organizations, governmental organizations, and regional governance platforms. To monitor, assess, and evaluate the effects of the program on its beneficiaries, MAP-Norway uses a series of indicators that allow project managers and donors to adapt and follow-up on the interventions. Because gender is a cross-cutting theme in the program, gender indicators are used at all levels: families, producer organizations, and governmental organizations and governance platforms. In this document, we use the experience of MAP-Norway to critically assess these indicators, considering their potential usability in the monitoring and evaluation of climate-smart agriculture (CSA) initiatives. Furthermore, we propose a series of other indicators that capture various dimensions of gender relations. These indicators can be used to assess the effect of CSA practices, services, and technologies on equity in decision-making, women's empowerment (including economic empowerment), intra-household food security, and equity in ownership over productive resources, among others, thus providing evidence that can help better design and target CSA interventions.
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