Summary We collected more than 500 ft of through-fracture core in the Upper Wolfcamp (UWC) and Middle Wolfcamp (MWC) formations in the Permian Basin. As part of core characterization, we analyzed the core-sludge samples for the presence of proppant and natural-calcite particles. Apart from sample preparation and imaging, we designed and developed a novel image-processing work flow to detect and classify the particles. We used the observations from the identified particle distribution within the stimulated rock volume to understand proppant-transport behavior. We used relative distributions of smaller 100-mesh- and larger 40/70-mesh-proppant particles to interpret proppant placement in relation to perforation clusters. Finally, we used the relative distribution of particles to understand the interaction between natural and hydraulic fractures. We observe that stress variations and the degree of natural fracturing have a bearing on local proppant-screenout behavior. Smaller 100-mesh proppant seems to dominate at larger lateral offsets from the hydraulically fractured wells. We also observe indications of heel-side bias according to lateral proppant distribution. We share our work flow for particle detection and classification, which can serve as a template for proppant analysis in the future if significant through-fracture cores are collected in similar field experiments.
This paper describes a new modeling framework for microscopic to reservoir-scale simulations of hydraulic fracturing and production. The approach builds upon a fusion of two existing high-performance simulators for reservoir-scale behavior: the GEOS code for hydromechanical evolution during stimulation and the TOUGH+ code for multi-phase flow during production. The reservoir-scale simulations are informed by experimental and modeling studies at the laboratory scale to incorporate important micro-scale mechanical processes and chemical reactions occurring within the fractures, the shale matrix, and at the fracture-fluid interfaces. These processes include, among others, changes in stimulated fracture permeability as a result of proppant behavior rearrangement or embedment, or mineral scale precipitation within pores and microfractures, at µm to cm scales. In our new modeling framework, such micro-scale testing and modeling provides upscaled hydromechanical parameters for the reservoir scale models. We are currently testing the new modeling framework using field data and core samples from the Hydraulic Fracturing Field Test (HFTS), a recent field-based joint research experiment with intense monitoring of hydraulic fracturing and shale production in the Wolfcamp Formation in the Permian Basin (USA). Below, we present our approach coupling the reservoir simulators GEOS and TOUGH+ informed by upscaled parameters from micro-scale experiments and modeling. We provide a brief overview of the HFTS and the available field data, and then discuss the ongoing application of our new workflow to the HFTS data set.
Typical hydraulic fracturing designs in shale utilize a predetermined fluid pump rate, which once achieved is held constant throughout the treatment, excluding situations when surface pressure limitations or other conditions disallow. We propose a method of pumping hydraulic fracture stages where the fluid pump rate is rapidly changed from the predetermined maximum rate, to some significantly lower rate, and then rapidly increased back to original maximum rate. This rapid change in the flow rate produces a pressure pulse that travels up and down the wellbore and has the capacity, together with the pump rate change, to open previously unopened perforations, while increasing fracture complexity through fluid diversion.We observed increased microseismicity during hydraulic fracturing in stages with frequent pump rate changes. Regardless of their type and nature, seismic signals are indicative of fragmentation of the treated zone. This could be from shear shattering or dilatational opening. One can also assume that high signal density is a good measure of fracturing efficiency. To further investigate these observations, we implemented a variable pump rate fracture design in a Marcellus shale well. More specifically, we implemented the variable pump rate frac design in every odd stage, while implementing a constant rate design in every even stage. This was done in order to account for changes in the reservoir along the horizontal lateral.Production log results showed on average a 19% increase in production for the variable pump rate stages versus the constant pump rate stages. A lower treating pressure was often encountered after the rapid rate changes, leading to the conclusion that unopened perforations were opened with the aid of the induced pressure pulses. Total well production decline was much slower for test well that included variable pump rate changes versus the offset horizontal well which did not include the variable pump rate frac design.And finally water hammer frequency decay analysis shows a predictable trend in well with variable pump rate stages. Throughout the variable pump rate stages, no proppant transport issues were encountered and the frac stages were completed without any major issues.Rapid rate changes applied throughout the fracture treatment enhance microseismicity, which could be interpreted as additional fracture complexity. Surface fracturing pressure data shows that rapid pump rate changes open additional perforations without physical flow diverters such as ball sealers or frac balls,
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