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Objective Studying the biology of the human placenta represents a major experimental challenge. Although conventional cell culture techniques have been used to study different types of placenta-derived cells, current in vitro models have limitations in recapitulating organ-specific structure and key physiological functions of the placenta. Here we demonstrate that it is possible to leverage microfluidic and microfabrication technologies to develop a microengineered biomimetic model that replicates the architecture and function of the placenta. Materials and methods A “Placenta-on-a-Chip” microdevice was created by using a set of soft elastomer-based microfabrication techniques known as soft lithography. This microsystem consisted of two polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) microfluidic channels separated by a thin extracellular matrix (ECM) membrane. To reproduce the placental barrier in this model, human trophoblasts (JEG-3) and human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) were seeded onto the opposite sides of the ECM membrane and cultured under dynamic flow conditions to form confluent epithelial and endothelial layers in close apposition. We tested the physiological function of the microengineered placental barrier by measuring glucose transport across the trophoblast-endothelial interface over time. The permeability of the barrier study was analyzed and compared to that obtained from acellular devices and additional control groups that contained epithelial or endothelial layers alone. Results Our microfluidic cell culture system provided a tightly controlled fluidic environment conducive to the proliferation and maintenance of JEG-3 trophoblasts and HUVECs on the ECM scaffold. Prolonged culture in this model produced confluent cellular monolayers on the intervening membrane that together formed the placental barrier. This in vivo-like microarchitecture was also critical for creating a physiologically relevant effective barrier to glucose transport. Quantitative investigation of barrier function was conducted by calculating permeability coefficients and metabolic rates in varying conditions of barrier structure. The rates of glucose transport and metabolism were consistent with previously reported in vivo observations. Conclusion The “Placenta-on-a-Chip” microdevice described herein provides new opportunities to simulate and analyze critical physiological responses of the placental barrier. This system may be used to address the major limitations of existing placenta model systems and serve to enable research platforms for reproductive biology and medicine.

Summary Although expansion of CAG repeats in ATAXIN1 (ATXN1) causes Spinocerebellar ataxia type 1, the functions of ATXN1 and ATAXIN1-Like (ATXN1L) remain poorly understood. To investigate the function of these proteins, we generated and characterized Atxn1L−/− and Atxn1−/−; Atxn1L−/− mice. Atxn1L−/− mice have hydrocephalus, omphalocoele and lung alveolarization defects. These phenotypes are more penetrant and severe in Atxn1−/−; Atxn1L−/− mice, suggesting that Atxn1 and Atxn1L are functionally redundant. Upon pursuing the molecular mechanism, we discovered that several Matrix metalloproteinase (Mmp) genes are overexpressed and that the transcriptional repressor Capicua (Cic) is destabilized in Atxn1L−/− lungs. Consistent with this, Cic deficiency causes lung alveolarization defect. Loss of either Atxn1L or Cic derepresses Etv4, an activator for Mmp genes, thereby mediating Mmp9 overexpression. These findings demonstrate a critical role of ATXN1/ATXN1L-CIC complexes in extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling during development and their potential roles in pathogenesis of disorders affecting ECM remodeling.

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Background. The complement system, a major component of innate immunity, has recently been implicated in the mechanisms of fetal loss and placental inflammation in the anti-phospholipid antibody syndrome. Inhibition of complement has been proposed as an absolute requirement for normal pregnancy. Yet, pregnancy is characterized by a generalized activation of the innate immune system. This study was conducted to determine whether or not normal pregnancy is associated with complement activation in the maternal circulation. Methods. Anaphylatoxins (C3a, C4a and C5a) were determined in the plasma of normal pregnant (20-42 wks; n = 134) and non-pregnant women (n = 40). These complement split products (C3a, C4a and C5a) were measured using specific immunoassays. Non-parametric statistics were used for analysis. Results. 1) The median plasma concentrations of C3a, C4a and C5a were significantly higher in normal pregnant women than in non-pregnant women (all p 5 0.001); 2) the concentration of C3a, C4a and C5a did not change with gestational age (p 4 0.05); and 3) the median plasma concentration of C3a had a positive correlation with the plasma C4a and C5a concentrations (r = 0.36, p 5 0.001 and r = 0.35, p 5 0.001, respectively). Conclusion. 1) Normal human pregnancy is associated with evidence of complement activation, as determined by higher concentrations of the anaphylatoxins C3a, C4a and C5a in the maternal circulation; and 2) we propose that physiologic activation of the complement system during pregnancy is a compensatory mechanism aimed at protecting the host against infection.

Leptin, the Ob gene product, has emerged recently as a key regulator of bone mass. However, the mechanism mediating leptin effect remains controversial. Because the action of leptin is dependent on its receptors, we analyzed their expression in osteoblast-lineage primary human bone marrow stromal cells (hBMSC). Both the short and long forms of leptin receptors were detected in hBMSC. Leptin significantly decreased the viability of hBMSC. This cytotoxic effect was prevented by ZVal-Ala-Asp-fluoromethylketone, a pan-caspase inhibitor, implicating that leptin-induced hBMSC death was caspase-dependent. Further investigation demonstrated that leptin activated caspase-3 and caspase-9, but not caspase-8, and increased the cleavage of poly-(ADP-ribose) polymerase and cytochrome c release into cytosol. Leptin activated ERK, but not p38 and JNK, and up-regulated cPLA2 activity; the latter was abolished by pre-treatment of cells with the MEK inhibitor (PD98059 or U0126) or cPLA2 inhibitor (AACOCF3). PD98059, U0126, and AACOCF3 also diminished the leptin-induced cytochrome c release into cytosol, cell death, and caspase-3 activation. These data indicated that leptin induced hBMSC apoptosis via ERK/cPLA2/cytochrome c pathway with activation of caspase-9 and caspase-3, and cleavage of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase. To our knowledge, this is the first study demonstrating the direct detrimental effect of leptin on bone cells.Leptin, the protein product encoded by obese gene, is a circulating hormone produced primarily by the adipose tissue and is a multifunctional hormone that plays important roles in body weight homeostasis, neuroendocrine function, fertility, immune function, and angiogenesis (1-3). The biological actions of leptin on target tissues are carried out through interaction with its specific receptor, Ob-R (4). A hallmark of Ob-R expression is the presence of several receptor variants (Ob-Ra through Ob-Rf) that are generated by alternative splicing; they share the same extracellular domain but differ in the length of the transmembrane/cytoplasmic coding regions (2). The long Ob-Rb subtype (Ob-R L ) appears as the functional, signal-transducing isoform, responsible for the action of leptin. The roles of the shorter Ob-R isoforms (Ob-R S ) remain to be characterized. Although leptin's precise sites of action are not known, its effect is thought largely mediated via hypothalamus. However, the wide expression of Ob-R L throughout the body suggests that leptin may also operate directly in peripheral tissues (5). There is now a significant amount of evidence implicating that leptin is active in the periphery (6).Recently, leptin has emerged as a key element in the regulation of bone mass. However, the mechanism by which leptin acts upon the bone remains unclear. Thomas et al. (7) reported that leptin enhanced the differentiation of hBMSC, 1 and Steppan et al. (8) reported that the femurs of leptindeficient ob/ob mice were shorter than those in the normal mice, and intraperitoneal injection of leptin significantly increas...

The development of emphysema in humans and mice exposed to cigarette smoke is promoted by activation of an adaptive immune response. Lung myeloid dendritic cells (mDCs) derived from cigarette smokers activate autoreactive Th1 and Th17 cells. mDC-dependent activation of T cell subsets requires expression of the SPP1 gene, which encodes osteopontin (OPN), a pleiotropic cytokine implicated in autoimmune responses. The upstream molecular events that promote SPP1 expression and activate mDCs in response to smoke remain unknown. Here, we show that peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARG/Pparg) expression was downregulated in mDCs of smokers with emphysema and mice exposed to chronic smoke. Conditional knockout of PPARγ in APCs using Cd11c-Cre Pparg flox/flox mice led to spontaneous lung inflammation and emphysema that resembled the phenotype of smoke-exposed mice. The inflammatory phenotype of Cd11c-Cre Pparg flox/flox mice required OPN, suggesting an antiinflammatory mechanism in which PPARγ negatively regulates Spp1 expression in the lung. A 2-month treatment with a PPARγ agonist reversed emphysema in WT mice despite continual smoke exposure. Furthermore, endogenous PPARγ agonists were reduced in the plasma of smokers with emphysema. These findings reveal a proinflammatory pathway, in which reduced PPARγ activity promotes emphysema, and suggest that targeting this pathway in smokers could prevent and reverse emphysema.

BACKGROUND: Cervical insufficiency is a risk factor for spontaneous midtrimester abortion or early preterm birth. Intra-amniotic infection has been reported in 8-52% of such patients and intraamniotic inflammation in 81%. Some professional organizations have recommended perioperative antibiotic treatment when emergency cervical cerclage is performed. The use of prophylactic antibiotics is predicated largely on the basis that they reduce the rate of complications during the course of vaginal surgery. However, it is possible that antibiotic administration can also eradicate intra-amniotic infection/ inflammation and improve pregnancy outcome. OBJECTIVE: To describe the outcome of antibiotic treatment in patients with cervical insufficiency and intra-amniotic infection/inflammation. STUDY DESIGN: The study population consisted of 22 women who met the following criteria: (1) singleton pregnancy; (2) painless cervical dilatation of >1 cm between 16.0 and 27.9 weeks of gestation; (3) intact membranes and absence of uterine contractions; (4) transabdominal amniocentesis performed for the evaluation of the microbiologic and inflammatory status of the amniotic cavity; (5) presence of intra-amniotic infection/inflammation; and (6) antibiotic treatment (regimen consisted of ceftriaxone, clarithromycin, and metronidazole). Amniotic fluid was cultured for aerobic and anaerobic bacteria and genital mycoplasmas, and polymerase chain reaction for Ureaplasma spp. was performed. Intraamniotic infection was defined as a positive amniotic fluid culture for microorganisms or a positive polymerase chain reaction for Ureaplasma spp., and intra-amniotic inflammation was suspected when there was an elevated amniotic fluid white blood cell count (!19 cells/mm 3 ) or a positive rapid test for metalloproteinase-8 (sensitivity 10 ng/mL). For the purpose of this study, the "gold standard" for diagnosis of intra-amniotic inflammation was an elevated interleukin-6 concentration (>2.6 ng/mL)