In the testis, a subset of spermatogonia retains stem cell potential, while others differentiate to eventually become spermatozoa. This delicate balance must be maintained, as defects can result in testicular cancer or infertility. Currently, little is known about the gene products and signaling pathways directing these critical cell fate decisions. Retinoic acid (RA) is a requisite driver of spermatogonial differentiation and entry into meiosis, yet the mechanisms activated downstream are undefined. Here, we determined a requirement for RA in the expression of KIT, a receptor tyrosine kinase essential for spermatogonial differentiation. We found that RA signaling utilized the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway to induce the efficient translation of mRNAs for Kit, which are present but not translated in undifferentiated spermatogonia. Our findings provide an important molecular link between a morphogen (RA) and the expression of KIT protein, which together direct the differentiation of spermatogonia throughout the male reproductive lifespan.

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Prospermatogonia transition into type A spermatogonia, which provide the source for the spermatogonial stem cell (SSC) pool. A percentage of these type A spermatogonia then differentiate to enter meiosis as spermatocytes by ~P10. It is currently unclear when these distinct populations are initially formed in the neonatal testis, and when the expression of markers both characteristic of and required for the adult undifferentiated and differentiating states are established. In this study, we compared expression of known spermatogonial cell fate markers during normal development and in response to the differentiation signal provided by retinoic acid (RA). We found that some markers for the undifferentiated state (ZBTB16/PLZF and CDH1) were expressed in nearly all spermatogonia from P1 through P7. In contrast, differentiation markers (STRA8 and KIT) appeared in a subset of spermatogonia at P4, coincident with the onset of RA signaling. GFRA1, which was present in nearly all prospermatogonia at P1, was only retained in STRA8/KIT− spermatogonia. From P4 through P10, there was a great deal of heterogeneity in the male germ cell population in terms of marker expression, as markers characteristic of the undifferentiated (except GFRA1) and differentiating states were co-expressed through this interval. After P10, these fate markers diverged to mark distinct populations of undifferentiated and differentiating spermatogonia, and this pattern was maintained in the juvenile (P18) and adult (P>60) testis. Taken together, these results reveal that the spermatogonia population is heterogeneous during the first wave of spermatogenesis, and indicate that neonatal spermatogonia may not serve as an ideal substitute for studying the function of adult spermatogonia.

Summary Spermatogonial stem cells (SSCs) must balance self-renewal with production of transit-amplifying progenitors that differentiate in response to retinoic acid (RA) before entering meiosis. This self-renewal vs. differentiation spermatogonial fate decision is critical for maintaining tissue homeostasis, as imbalances cause spermatogenesis defects that can lead to human testicular cancer or infertility. A great deal of effort has been exerted to understand how the SSC population is maintained. In contrast, little is known about the essential program of differentiation initiated by retinoic acid (RA) that precedes meiosis, and the pathways and proteins involved are poorly defined. We recently reported a novel role for RA in stimulating the PI3/AKT/mTOR kinase signaling pathway to activate translation of repressed mRNAs such as Kit. Here, we examined the requirement for mTOR complex 1 (mTORC1) in mediating the RA signal to direct spermatogonial differentiation in the neonatal testis. We found that in vivo inhibition of mTORC1 by rapamycin blocked spermatogonial differentiation, which led to an accumulation of undifferentiated spermatogonia. In addition, rapamycin also blocked the RA-induced translational activation of mRNAs encoding KIT, SOHLH1, and SOHLH2 without affecting expression of STRA8. These findings highlight dual roles for RA in germ cell development – transcriptional activation of genes, and kinase signaling to stimulate translation of repressed messages required for spermatogonial differentiation.

In mammals, most neonatal male germ cells (prospermatogonia) are quiescent and located in the center of the testis cords. In response to an unknown signal, prospermatogonia transition into spermatogonia, reenter the cell cycle, divide, and move to the periphery of the testis cords. In mice, these events occur by 3-4 days postpartum (dpp), which temporally coincides with the onset of retinoic acid (RA) signaling in the neonatal testis. RA has a pivotal role in initiating germ cell entry into meiosis in both sexes, yet little is known about the mechanisms and about cellular changes downstream of RA signaling. We examined the role of RA in mediating the prospermatogonia-to-spermatogonia transition in vivo and found 24 h of precocious RA exposure-induced germ cell changes mimicking those that occur during the endogenous transition at 3-4 dpp. These changes included: 1) spermatogonia proliferation; 2) maturation of cellular organelles; and 3), expression of markers characteristic of differentiating spermatogonia. We found that germ cell exposure to RA did not lead to cellular loss from apoptosis but rather resulted in a delay of ∼2 days in their entry into meiosis. Taken together, our results indicate that exogenous RA induces multiple hallmarks of the transition of prospermatogonia to spermatogonia prior to their entry into meiosis.

Retinoic acid (RA) directs the sequential, but distinct, programs of spermatogonial differentiation and meiotic differentiation that are both essential for the generation of functional spermatozoa. These processes are functionally and temporally decoupled, as they occur in distinct cell types that arise over a week apart, both in the neonatal and adult testis. However, our understanding is limited in terms of what cellular and molecular changes occur downstream of RA exposure that prepare differentiating spermatogonia for meiotic initiation. In this review, we describe the process of spermatogonial differentiation and summarize the current state of knowledge regarding RA signaling in spermatogonia.

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