Research has demonstrated that left-prefrontal cortical activity is associated with positive affect, or approach motivation, and that right-prefrontal cortical activity is associated with negative affect, or withdrawal motivation. In past research, emotional valence (positive-negative) has been confounded with motivational direction (approach-withdrawal), such that, for instance, the only emotions examined were both positive and approach related. Recent research has demonstrated that trait anger, a negative but approach-related emotion, is associated with increased left-prefrontal and decreased right-prefrontal activity, suggesting that prefrontal asymmetrical activity is associated with motivational direction and not emotional valence. The present experiment tested whether state-induced anger is associated with relative left-prefrontal activity and whether this prefrontal activity is also associated with aggression. Results supported these hypotheses.

The present research tested whether relative left midfrontal cortical activity would be greater when individuals believed they could engage in behaviour to ameliorate an anger-inducing situation as compared to when they believed they could do nothing. The research also examined whether relative left midfrontal cortical activity would relate to behaviors aimed at ameliorating the anger-inducing situation, when individuals believed they could do something. To test these primary hypotheses, university students who were opposed to a tuition increase at their university were exposed to a pilot radio editorial that argued for increased tuition, and their electroencephalographic (EEG) activity, self-reported emotions, and behavioural responses were then collected. Prior to hearing the editorial, participants were led to believe that the tuition increase would definitely occur or that the tuition increase may occur and that petitions were being circulated to attempt to prevent it. Results supported the primary hypotheses and also revealed that relative left midfrontal activity was associated with anger in response to the editorial and that the effects were specific to the midfrontal cortical regions.

The behavioral approach system (BAS) reflects the propensity to respond to signals of reward, including stimuli associated with safety and goal-oriented attack (e.g., anger). Hypomania/mania has been posited to involve increased BAS activity. In contrast, depression has been posited to involve decreased BAS activity. Building on past research, which suggests that increased left frontal cortical activity is a neurophysiological index of BAS activity, the present research tested the hypotheses that proneness toward hypomania/mania symptoms would be related to increased relative left frontal activity and that proneness toward depression symptoms would be related to decreased relative left frontal activity in response to an anger-evoking event. Results from 67 individuals who had completed a measure of proneness toward these affective symptoms and were exposed to an anger-evoking event supported the hypotheses.Prominent motivation theories share the assumption that two systems underlie much behavior. One system manages appetitive, incentive motivation and approach behavior. It has been called a behavioral activation system (Fowles, 1980(Fowles, , 1988, behavioral approach system (BAS; Gray, 1982Gray, , 1987Gray, , 1990Gray, , 1994aGray, , 1994b, and behavioral facilitation system (Depue & Collins, 1999;Depue & Iacono, 1989;Depue, Krauss, & Spoont, 1987). The other system, the behavioral inhibition system (BIS), inhibits ongoing behavior (Gray, 1982(Gray, , 1987(Gray, , 1990(Gray, , 1994b).Gray 's (1982, 1987, 1994a, 1994b) theory has served as the basis for most of the other theories. Hence, we focus on it. Gray has posited that these fundamental motivation systems are present in the mammalian central nervous system and that each responds to separate classes of reinforcing events with particular types of behavior. Moreover, each is mediated by a separate set of interacting brain structures that process particular types of information. The BIS responds to conditioned stimuli associated with punishment, conditioned stimuli associated with the omission or termination of reward (frustrative nonreward), and novel stimuli. It causes the interruption of ongoing behavior, increases arousal, which prepares the organism for the next behavior, and increases attention toward stimuli, which would increase information gain. The neural structures posited to be involved in the BIS are the septohippocampal system (composed of the septal area, entorhinal cortex, dentate gyrus, hippocampus, and subicular area), the prefrontal cortex, and the monoaminergic pathways that ascend from the mesencephalon to innervate the septohippocampal system.The BAS is posited to respond to stimuli associated with reward and relieving nonpunishment (safety). It also responds to stimuli associated with skilled escape and predatory aggression. The neural structures involved in the BAS are the basal ganglia (the dorsal and ventral striatum, and dorsal and ventral pallidum), the dopaminergic fibers that ascend from the mesencephalon (substantia nigra and nu...

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The action-based model of dissonance predicts that following decisional commitment, approach-oriented motivational processes occur to assist in translating the decision into effective and unconflicted behavior. Therefore, the modulation of these approach-oriented processes should affect the degree to which individuals change their attitudes to be more consistent with the decisional commitment (spreading of alternatives). Experiment 1 demonstrated that a neurofeedback-induced decrease in relative left frontal cortical activation, which has been implicated in approach motivational processes, caused a reduction in spreading of alternatives. Experiment 2 manipulated an action-oriented mindset following a decision and demonstrated that the action-oriented mindset caused increased activation in the left frontal cortical region as well as increased spreading of alternatives. Discussion focuses on how this integration of neuroscience and dissonance theory benefits both parent literatures.