Elevated levels of plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDC) have been reported in breast cancer patients, the significance of which remains undefined. Using three different immunocompetent mouse models of BCa bone metastasis, we identified a key role for pDC in facilitating tumor growth through immunosuppression and aggressive osteolysis. Following infiltration of macrophages upon breast cancer dissemination, there was a steady increase of pDC within the bone, which resulted in a sustained Th2 response along with elevated levels of Treg and MDSC. Subsequently, pDC and CD4+ T cells, producing osteolytic cytokines, increased with tumor burden causing severe bone damage. Micro-CT and histology analyses of bone showed destruction of femur and tibia. Therapeutic significance of this finding was confirmed by depletion of pDC, which resulted in decreased tumor burden and bone loss by activating tumor-specific cytolytic CD8+ T cells and decreasing suppressor cell populations. Thus, pDC depletion may offer a novel adjuvant strategy to therapeutically influence breast cancer bone metastasis.

The lack of consensus on bone marrow (BM) and splenic immune cell profiles in preclinical mouse strains complicates comparative analysis across different studies. Although studies have documented relative distribution of immune cells from peripheral blood in mice, similar studies for BM and spleen from naïve mice are lacking. In an effort to establish strain- and gender-specific benchmarks for distribution of various immune cell sub-types in these organs, we performed immunophenotypic analysis of BM cells and splenocytes from both genders of three commonly used murine strains (C57BL/6NCr, 129/SvHsd, and BALB/cAnNCr). Total neutrophils, and splenic macrophages were significantly higher in C57BL/6NCr; whereas total B-cells were lower. Within C57BL/6NCr female mice, BM B-cells were elevated with respect to the males whereas splenic mDCs and splenic neutrophils were reduced. Within BALB/cAnNCr male mice, BM CD4+ Tregs were elevated with respect to the other strains. Furthermore, in male BALB/cAnNCr mice, NK cells were elevated with respect to the other strains in both BM and spleen. Splenic CD4+ Tregs and splenic CD8+ T cells were reduced in male BALB/c mice in comparison to female mice. Bone marrow CD4+ T cells and mDCs were significantly increased in 129/SvHsd whereas splenic CD8+ T cells were reduced. In general, males exhibited higher immature myeloid cells, macrophages and NK cells. To our knowledge, this study provides a first attempt to systematically establish organ-specific benchmarks on immune cells in studies involving these mouse strains.

The reactivation of cancer cells following a seemingly successful treatment of the primary tumour with initial therapies (such as tumour excision or systemic therapy) is a well-known phenomenon. This metastatic rebirth is preceded by an interlude, termed dormancy, when cancer sleeps undetected for periods that can last years or even decades. Discoveries over the past 10 years have revealed the therapeutic potential of prolonging dormancy for maintaining a clinically asymptomatic state, or the permanent clearance of dormant residual disseminated cancer cells to affect a 'cure'. Here, we provide an overview of the mechanisms of dormancy and use genitourinary cancers as models to demonstrate how dormancy principles could be exploited clinically. Data from these models have yielded promising therapeutic strategies to address dormancy as well as diagnostics that could enable clinicians to monitor the dormant state of cancer in patients. This Review also aims to convey that dormancy, as a whole, likely results from coalescing contributions made by each of the three types of dormancy discussed (cellular, angiogenic and immunological). In our opinion, dormancy-directed therapies will prove most effective when the effect of these cumulative contributions are understood and targeted.

Purpose: Current evidence indicates that an osteoblast lesion in prostate cancer is preceded by osteolysis. Thus, prevention of osteolysis would reduce complications of bone metastasis. Bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells have the ability to differentiate into osteoblast and produce osteoprotegerin, a decoy receptor for the receptor activator for nuclear factor κB ligand, naturally. The present study examined the potential of unmodified mesenchymal stem cells to prevent osteolytic bone lesions in a preclinical mouse model of prostate cancer. Experimental Design: The human prostate cancer cell line PC3 was implanted in tibiae of severe combined immunodeficient mice. After establishment of the tumor, either unmodified or genetically engineered mesenchymal stem cells overexpressing osteoprotegerin was injected at the site of tumor growth. The effects of therapy were monitored by bioluminescence imaging, micro-computed tomography, immunohistochemistry, and histomorphometry. Results: Data indicated significant (P < 0.001) inhibition of tumor growth and restoration of bone in mice treated with unmodified and modified mesenchymal stem cells. Detailed analysis suggested that the donor mesenchymal stem cell inhibited tumor progression by producing woven bone around the growing tumor cells in the tibiae and by preventing osteoclastogenesis. Prostate cancer is the second leading cause of cancer deaths in men behind lung cancer in the United States and metastasizes to bone in >70% of the cases during advance stages (1). Bone metastasis causes severe bone pain and pathologic fractures, and shortens life span by significant amount. Most bone metastatic cancers (breast, lung, thyroid, and kidney) generate osteolytic lesions, whereas prostate cancer generates osteoblastic phenotype, with an overall increase in bone volume (2-4).However, the appearance of osteoblastic lesions is preceded and/or accompanied by an osteolytic event, which is required for the establishment and growth of prostate cancer cells in the bone microenvironment (4, 5). The binding of receptor activator of nuclear factor κB ligand (RANKL) to RANK on preosteoclasts or osteoclasts is essential for their maturation and activity (6, 7). Increased expression of RANKL has been observed in osteolytic malignancies, and the inhibition of osteoclastogenesis or metastasis has been considered as an intervention strategy. Osteoprotegerin is a soluble decoy receptor for RANKL and prevents binding of RANKL to RANK, leading to the inhibition of osteoclast activity and bone metastasis (8-10). Osteoprotegerin therefore promises tremendous hope for potential clinical use in the management of osteolytic bone metastasis. Systemic delivery of osteoprotegerin has shown promise as a potential therapy in animal models, limiting hypercalcemia and osteolysis induced by myeloma, breast, lung, or prostate cancer, and reducing tumor establishment in bone (11)(12)(13)(14)(15)(16)(17).Homing of adult bone marrow derived mesenchymal stem cells to the sites of tumor growth is...

BACKGROUND The antimicrobial peptide, LL-37 (leucine-leucine-37), stimulates proliferation, angiogenesis and cellular migration, inhibits apoptosis and is associated with inflammation. Since these functional processes are often exaggerated in cancer, the aim of the present study was to investigate the expression and role of LL-37 in prostate cancer (PCa) and establish its value as a therapeutic target. METHODS We evaluated the expression of LL-37 and the murine orthologue, Cathelicidin Related Anti-Microbial Peptide (CRAMP) in human and murine prostate tumors, respectively. Compared to normal/benign prostate tissue, both LL-37 and CRAMP were increasingly over-expressed with advancing grades of primary prostate cancer and its metastasis in human tissues and in the Transgenic Adenocarcinoma Mouse Prostate (TRAMP) model, correspondingly. We subsequently knocked down CRAMP in the highly tumorigenic TRAMP-C1 cell line via a RNA interference (RNAi) strategy to examine the importance of CRAMP on cellular proliferation, angiogenesis, invasion, apoptosis, activation of signaling pathways and tumor kinetics. RESULTS Abrogation of CRAMP expression led to decreased proliferation, invasion, type IV collagenase, and the amount of phosphorylated Erk1/2 and Akt signaling in vitro. These results were paralleled in vivo. Syngenic implantation of TRAMP-C1 cells subjected to CRAMP knock-down resulted in a decreased tumor incidence and size, and the down regulation of pro-tumorigenic mechanisms. CONCLUSIONS CRAMP knockdown in a murine prostate cancer model analogously demonstrated the tumorigenic contributions of LL-37 in PCa and its potential as a novel therapeutic target for the treatment of PCa and potentially, other cancers over-expressing the peptide.