This article suggests that the concepts of vulnerability and 'difference' should be the focal points of hate crime scholarship if the values at the heart of the hate crime movement are not to be diluted. By stringently associating hate crime with particular strands of victims and sets of motivations through singular constructions of identity, criminologists have created a divisive and hierarchical approach to understanding hate crime. To counter these limitations, we propose that vulnerability and 'difference', rather than identity and group membership alone, should be central to investigations of hate crime. These concepts would allow for a more inclusive conceptual framework enabling hitherto overlooked and vulnerable victims of targeted violence to receive the recognition they urgently need.
This article considers the processes through which some police officers with mental ill-health experience stigmatization in police organizations. Situated in the sociological framework of Goffman and in modified labelling theory, it draws on the findings of a qualitative study and examines the sources of stigma embedded in police work, the consequences of stigma for the labelled officer, the nature of any resistance to the application of the label and approaches to challenging stigma within the policing context. It suggests that in order to tackle these negative attitudes constabularies must do more to address the processes of stigmatization associated with mental ill-health at the individual and institutional levels.
IntroductionOne of the most notable political developments of the last few years has been the rapid growth of a new street-based movement, the English Defence League (EDL). Emerging out of the fringes of the English domestic football hooligan scene in the early summer of 2009, the EDL's vocal opposition to what it calls 'militant Islam' appears to have garnered considerable support from marginalised and disadvantaged white working-class communities (Copsey, 2010).The motivations of perpetrators of racially motivated hate crime (especially those whose violence is undetected) have received perplexingly little academic scrutiny to date (Chakraborti and Garland, 2009). This article is a first attempt at presenting material gained from accessing a group of young males who regularly use racially and religiously motivated violence. In doing this we employ three case studies, undertaken with male EDL supporters from working class backgrounds, and examine how they construct a specific form and style of violent masculinity. In all three cases we suggest that acute feelings of marginalisation and disadvantage prompt internalised negative emotions of disillusion and anger, which then manifest themselves through externalised hostility, resentment and fury directed at the scapegoat for their ills: the Islamic 'other'.By making such an argument, we place ourselves alongside an emergent critical and psychosocial criminological perspective. In examining how violence is fostered both psychologically and sociostructurally, we are keen to move away from the 'victimological perspective' which has dominated understanding of racially-and religiously-motivated violence and instead examine 'the characteristics of offenders, the social milieu in which [racial] violence is fostered, and the process by which it becomes directed against people from ethnic minorities ' (Bowling and Phillips, 2002: 14).We therefore align ourselves with other recent empirically informed criminological research which has sought to understand and explain how and why some men use violence, by recognising that:Men who carry with them the deeply ingrained visceral dispositions that are the products of socialization within micro-climates of insecurity, aggression and domination often come to value violence and place its enactment close to the centre of self-identity … the desire not to be dominated by another can become extremely potent (Winlow and Hall, 2009: 287-288).The three young men interviewed for this article have arguably internalised and accepted the potency of violence, and in particular that which is motivated by bias or prejudice. They were former 2 members of violent football firms to which the lead author gained access during his long-term ethnographic study of football disorder (Treadwell, 2008). They are now active members of the English Defence League and have all attended a number of street protests organised by the group.The empirical material presented here was gathered in the same authentic context that the violence occurs within, via ethnogra...
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