Potato cyst nematodes (PCN) are damaging soilborne quarantine pests of potato in many parts of the world. There are two recognized species, Globodera pallida and G. rostochiensis, with only the latter species—the golden cyst nematode—present in Australia. PCN was first discovered in Australia in 1986 in Western Australia, where it was subsequently eradicated and area freedom for market access was reinstated. In Victoria, PCN was first detected in 1991 east of Melbourne. Since then, it has been found in a small number of localized regions to the south and east. Strict quarantine controls have been in place since each new detection. It has previously been speculated that there were multiple separate introductions of PCN into Victoria. Our study utilized a historic (years 2001 to 2014) PCN cyst reference collection to examine genetic variability of Victorian PCN populations to investigate potential historical origins and subsequent changes in the populations that might inform patterns of spread. DNA was extracted from single larvae dissected from eggs within cysts and screened using nine previously described polymorphic microsatellite markers in two multiplex polymerase chain reaction assays. Sequence variation of the internal transcribed spacer region of the DNA was also assessed and compared with previously published data. A hierarchical sampling strategy was used, comparing variability of larvae within cysts, within paddocks, and between local regions. This sampling revealed very little differentiation between Victorian populations, which share the same microsatellite allelic variation, with differences between local regions probably reflecting changes in allele frequencies over time. Our molecular assessment supports a probable single localized introduction into Victoria followed by limited spread to nearby areas. The Australian PCN examined appear genetically distinct from populations previously sampled worldwide; thus, any new exotic incursions, potentially bringing in additional PCN pathotypes, should be easily differentiated from existing established local PCN populations.
The diet of the golden-tipped bat (Kerivoulu pupuensis) was investigated by collecting faecal samples from captured individuals in the Richmond Range State Forest, north-eastem New South Wales, Australia. Faecal analysis was used so that all captured individuals could be released after processing and banding. A total of 53 faecal pellets were collected in the summer and autumn months from 39 individuals. The major food of K. papuensis were spiders (Araneida) comprising 91.9% of the total volume of food. Other foods consumed in small quantities were Coleoptera, Lepidoptera and Diptera.
A species' diet and feeding strategy directly affect fitness and environmental interactions. Understanding spatial and temporal variation in diets can identify key resources, inform trophic relationships, and assist in managing threatened species. The nationally endangered Guthega skink, Liopholis guthega, is restricted to two isolated Australian alpine plateaux, the Bogong High Plains (BHP) in Victoria and Kosciuszko National Park (KNP) in New South Wales. We compared this species' foraging ecology over the summer period between these 'sky-islands' separated by~100 km of lowland valleys. Scat composition did not differ between the two lizard populations, despite differences in the invertebrate assemblages present. However, L. guthega diet varied temporally over summer at both locations. Invertebrates, predominantly Hymenoptera and Coleoptera, were the dominant food group in early summer (78% volume (V), 100% frequency occurrence (F)) and mid-summer (80% V, 100% F). A significant dietary shift occurred in late summer, when lizards consumed predominantly plant material (63% V, 95.5% F), consisting primarily of seasonally abundant berries from the snow beard heath, Acrothamnus montanus. In contrast to similar-sized Egerniinae species, it appears L. guthega is capable of opportunistically shifting its diet towards plant material in response to temporal variation in resource availability. Furthermore, the prevalence of intact seeds in scats indicates L. guthega may play a significant role in seed dispersal. Understanding these trophic interactions will assist conservation management of L. guthega, allowing conditions for an already established captive colony to mimic the temporally variable diets present in situ, as well as informing revegetation initiatives aimed at maintaining and expanding wild populations.
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