In early simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) and human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1) infections, gut-associated lymphatic tissue (GALT), the largest component of the lymphoid organ system, is a principal site of both virus production and depletion of primarily lamina propria memory CD4+ T cells; that is, CD4-expressing T cells that previously encountered antigens and microbes and homed to the lamina propria of GALT. Here, we show that peak virus production in gut tissues of SIV-infected rhesus macaques coincides with peak numbers of infected memory CD4+ T cells. Surprisingly, most of the initially infected memory cells were not, as expected, activated but were instead immunophenotypically 'resting' cells that, unlike truly resting cells, but like the first cells mainly infected at other mucosal sites and peripheral lymph nodes, are capable of supporting virus production. In addition to inducing immune activation and thereby providing activated CD4+ T-cell targets to sustain infection, virus production also triggered an immunopathologically limiting Fas-Fas-ligand-mediated apoptotic pathway in lamina propria CD4+ T cells, resulting in their preferential ablation. Thus, SIV exploits a large, resident population of resting memory CD4+ T cells in GALT to produce peak levels of virus that directly (through lytic infection) and indirectly (through apoptosis of infected and uninfected cells) deplete CD4+ T cells in the effector arm of GALT. The scale of this CD4+ T-cell depletion has adverse effects on the immune system of the host, underscoring the importance of developing countermeasures to SIV that are effective before infection of GALT.

While there has been great progress in treating HIV-1 infection1, preventing transmission has thus far proven an elusive goal. Indeed, recent trials of a candidate vaccine and microbicide have been disappointing, both for want of efficacy and concerns about increased rates of transmission2–4. Nonetheless, studies of vaginal transmission in the SIV-rhesus macaque model point to opportunities in the earliest stages of infection where a vaccine or microbicide might be protective, by limiting the expansion of infected founder populations at the portal of entry5, 6. Here we show in this SIV-macaque model, that an outside-in endocervical mucosal signalling system, involving MIP-3α, plasmacytoid dendritic cells and CCR5+cell-attracting chemokines produced by these cells, in combination with the innate immune and inflammatory responses to infection in both cervix and vagina, recruit CD4+T cells to fuel this obligate expansion. We then show that glycerol monolaurate, a widely used antimicrobial compound 7 with inhibitory activity against production of MIP-3α and other proinflammatory cytokines8, can inhibit mucosal signalling and the innate and inflammatory response to HIV-1 and SIV in vitro, and in vivo can protect rhesus macaques from acute infection despite repeated intra-vaginal exposure to high doses of SIV. This novel approach, plausibly linked to interfering with innate host responses that recruit the target cells necessary to establish systemic infection, opens a promising new avenue for development of effective interventions to block HIV-1 mucosal transmission.

Natural SIV infection of sooty mangabeys (SMs) is nonprogressive despite chronic virus replication. Strikingly, it is characterized by low levels of immune activation, while pathogenic SIV infection of rhesus macaques (RMs) is associated with chronic immune activation. To elucidate the mechanisms underlying this intriguing phenotype, we used high-density oligonucleotide microarrays to longitudinally assess host gene expression in SIV-infected SMs and RMs. We found that acute SIV infection of SMs was consistently associated with a robust innate immune response, including widespread upregulation of IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs) in blood and lymph nodes. While SMs exhibited a rapid resolution of ISG expression and immune activation, both responses were observed chronically in RMs. Systems biology analysis indicated that expression of the lymphocyte inhibitory receptor LAG3, a marker of T cell exhaustion, correlated with immune activation in SIV-infected RMs but not SMs. Our findings suggest that active immune regulatory mechanisms, rather than intrinsically attenuated innate immune responses, underlie the low levels of immune activation characteristic of SMs chronically infected with SIV.

In the current global AIDS pandemic, more than half of new human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infections are acquired by women through intravaginal HIV exposure. For this study, we explored pathogenesis issues relevant to the development of effective vaccines to prevent infection by this route, using an animal model in which female rhesus macaques were exposed intravaginally to a high dose of simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV). We examined in detail the events that transpire from hours to a few days after intravaginal SIV exposure through week 4 to provide a framework for understanding the propagation, dissemination, and establishment of infection in lymphatic tissues (LTs) during the acute stage of infection. We show that the mucosal barrier greatly limits the infection of cervicovaginal tissues, and thus the initial founder populations of infected cells are small. While there was evidence of rapid dissemination to distal sites, we also show that continuous seeding from an expanding source of production at the portal of entry is likely critical for the later establishment of a productive infection throughout the systemic LTs. The initially small founder populations and dependence on continuous seeding to establish a productive infection in systemic LTs define a small window of maximum vulnerability for the virus in which there is an opportunity for the host, vaccines, or other interventions to prevent or control infection.The AIDS pandemic, already the most widespread pandemic in recorded human history, has claimed the lives of millions and continues relatively unabated for want of an effective vaccine or other means of prevention. Especially urgent is the need for effective vaccines and microbicides to prevent the vaginal transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1), as women now account for close to 60 percent of newly acquired infections in Africa (27).The simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV)/rhesus monkey model of vaginal HIV transmission is clearly relevant to this objective. It has been used extensively to test vaccines (1,7,12,18,22) and microbicides (16,17,19,25,28) designed to prevent vaginal transmission. Moreover, pathogenesis studies relevant to the design and testing of vaccine and microbicide candidates that would be impossible in humans can be undertaken by use of this animal model. This model uses SIV, a primate lentivirus that is closely related to HIV (5) and that can be efficiently transmitted to macaques by vaginal inoculation of cell-free inocula (11,20,21). Further, the rhesus monkey is similar to humans with regard to the populations of target cells (10) and the physiology (4) and immunology (8, 9) of the female genital tract.Here we describe the use of this animal model to address the following two critical issues for the development of vaccines to prevent systemic infection following intravaginal transmission: the role of local propagation in establishing systemic infection and the dynamics of spread to the lymphatic tissues (LTs). The intravaginal inoculation mo...

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Here we report the results of an investigation into the possibility that one mechanism responsible for the establishment of persistent human immunodeficiency virus infection is an early regulatory T (Treg) cell response that blunts virus-specific responses. Using the simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV)-infected rhesus macaque model, we show that, indeed, viral replication and immune activation in lymphatic tissue drive a premature immunosuppressive response, with dramatic increases in the frequencies of CD4+CD25+FOXP3+ Treg cells, transforming growth factor- beta 1+ cells, interleukin-10+ cells, and indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase+CD3+ cells. When we compared SIV infection with rhesus cytomegalovirus (RhCMV) infection, we found that the frequency of Treg cells paralleled the magnitude of immune activation during both infections but that the magnitude of immune activation and of the Treg cell response were lower and peaked much later during RhCMV infection. Importantly, the frequency of Treg cells inversely correlated with the magnitude of the SIV-specific cytotoxic T lymphocyte response. We conclude that an early Treg cell response during acute SIV infection may contribute to viral persistence by prematurely limiting the antiviral immune response before infection is cleared.

As users continue offloading more control and responsibility to the computer, coordinating the asynchronous interactions between the user and computer is becoming increasingly important. Without proper coordination, an application attempting to gain the user's attention risks interrupting the user in the midst of performing another task. To justify why an application should avoid interrupting the user whenever possible, we designed an experiment measuring the disruptive effect of an interruption on a user's task performance. The experiment utilized six web-based task categories and two categories of interruption tasks. The results of the experiment demonstrate that (i) a user performs slower on an interrupted task than a non-interrupted task, (ii) the disruptive effect of an interruption differs as a function of task category, and (iii) different interruption tasks cause similar disruptive effects on task performance. These results empirically validate the need to better coordinate user interactions among applications that are competing for the user's attention.

Secondary xylem (wood) formation is likely to involve some genes expressed rarely or not at all in herbaceous plants. Moreover, environmental and developmental stimuli inf luence secondary xylem differentiation, producing morphological and chemical changes in wood. To increase our understanding of xylem formation, and to provide material for comparative analysis of gymnosperm and angiosperm sequences, ESTs were obtained from immature xylem of loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.). A total of 1,097 single-pass sequences were obtained from 5 ends of cDNAs made from gravistimulated tissue from bent trees. Cluster analysis detected 107 groups of similar sequences, ranging in size from 2 to 20 sequences. A total of 361 sequences fell into these groups, whereas 736 sequences were unique. About 55% of the pine EST sequences show similarity to previously described sequences in public databases. About 10% of the recognized genes encode factors involved in cell wall formation. Sequences similar to cell wall proteins, most known lignin biosynthetic enzymes, and several enzymes of carbohydrate metabolism were found. A number of putative regulatory proteins also are represented. Expression patterns of several of these genes were studied in various tissues and organs of pine. Sequencing novel genes expressed during xylem formation will provide a powerful means of identifying mechanisms controlling this important differentiation pathway.