Water is the most abundant liquid on earth and also the substance with the largest number of anomalies in its properties. It is a prerequisite for life and as such a most important subject of current research in chemical physics and physical chemistry. In spite of its simplicity as a liquid, it has an enormously rich phase diagram where different types of ices, amorphous phases, and anomalies disclose a path that points to unique thermodynamics of its supercooled liquid state that still hides many unraveled secrets. In this review we describe the behavior of water in the regime from ambient conditions to the deeply supercooled region. The review describes simulations and experiments on this anomalous liquid. Several scenarios have been proposed to explain the anomalous properties that become strongly enhanced in the supercooled region. Among those, the second critical-point scenario has been investigated extensively, and at present most experimental evidence point to this scenario. Starting from very low temperatures, a coexistence line between a high-density amorphous phase and a low-density amorphous phase would continue in a coexistence line between a high-density and a low-density liquid phase terminating in a liquid–liquid critical point, LLCP. On approaching this LLCP from the one-phase region, a crossover in thermodynamics and dynamics can be found. This is discussed based on a picture of a temperature-dependent balance between a high-density liquid and a low-density liquid favored by, respectively, entropy and enthalpy, leading to a consistent picture of the thermodynamics of bulk water. Ice nucleation is also discussed, since this is what severely impedes experimental investigation of the vicinity of the proposed LLCP. Experimental investigation of stretched water, i.e., water at negative pressure, gives access to a different regime of the complex water diagram. Different ways to inhibit crystallization through confinement and aqueous solutions are discussed through results from experiments and simulations using the most sophisticated and advanced techniques. These findings represent tiles of a global picture that still needs to be completed. Some of the possible experimental lines of research that are essential to complete this picture are explored.

Water is a complex liquid that displays a surprising array of unusual properties, the most famous being the density maximum at about 4°C. The origin of these anomalies is still a matter of debate, and so far a quantitative description of water's phase behaviour starting from the molecular arrangements is still missing. Here we report a study of the microscopic structural features of water as obtained from computer simulations. We identify locally favoured structures having a high degree of translational order in the second shell, and a two-state model is used to describe the behaviour of liquid water over a wide region of the phase diagram. Furthermore, we show that locally favoured structures not only have translational order in the second shell but also contain five-membered rings of hydrogenbonded molecules. This suggests their mixed character: the former helps crystallization, whereas the latter causes frustration against crystallization.

Despite its fundamental and technological importance, a microscopic understanding of the crystallization process is still elusive. By computer simulations of the hard-sphere model we reveal the mechanism by which thermal fluctuations drive the transition from the supercooled liquid state to the crystal state. In particular we show that fluctuations in bond orientational order trigger the nucleation process, contrary to the common belief that the transition is initiated by density fluctuations. Moreover, the analysis of bond orientational fluctuations shows that these not only act as seeds of the nucleation process, but also i) determine the particular polymorph which is to be nucleated from them and ii) at high density favour the formation of fivefold structures which can frustrate the formation of crystals. These results can shed new light on our understanding of the relationship between crystallization and vitrification.

Abstract:We introduce a microscopic model for particles with dissimilar patches which displays an unconventional "pinched'' phase diagram, similar to the one predicted by Tlusty and Safran in the context of dipolar fluids [Science 290, 1328[Science 290, (2000]. The model-based on two types of patch interactions, which account, respectively, for chaining and branching of the self-assembled networks-is studied both numerically via Monte Carlo simulations and theoretically via first-order perturbation theory. The dense phase is rich in junctions, while the less-dense phase is rich in chain ends. The model provides a reference system for a deep understanding of the competition between condensation and self-assembly into equilibrium-polymer chains.

The homogeneous crystallization of water at low temperature is believed to occur through the direct nucleation of cubic (Ic) and hexagonal (Ih) ices. Here, we provide evidence from molecular simulations that the nucleation of ice proceeds through the formation of a new metastable phase, which we name Ice 0. We find that Ice 0 is structurally similar to the supercooled liquid, and that on growth it gradually converts into a stacking of Ice Ic and Ih. We suggest that this mechanism provides a thermodynamic explanation for the location and pressure dependence of the homogeneous nucleation temperature, and that Ice 0 controls the homogeneous nucleation of low-pressure ices, acting as a precursor to crystallization in accordance with Ostwald's step rule of phases. Our findings show that metastable crystalline phases of water may play roles that have been largely overlooked.

We simulate a binary mixture of colloidal patchy particles with two and three patches, respectively, for several relative concentrations and hence relative average valences. For these limited-valence systems, it is possible to reach low temperatures, where the lifetime of the patch-patch interactions becomes longer than the observation time without encountering phase separation in a colloid-poor (gas) and a colloid rich (liquid) phase. The resulting arrested state is a fully connected long-lived network where particles with three patches provide the branching points connecting chains of two-patch particles. We investigate the effect of the valence on the structural and dynamic properties of the resulting gel and attempt to provide a theoretical description of the formation and of the resulting gel structure based on a combination of the Wertheim theory for associated liquids and the Flory-Stockmayer approach for modeling chemical gelation.

Liquids can be broadly classified into two categories, fragile and strong ones, depending on how their dynamical properties change with temperature. The dynamics of a strong liquid obey the Arrhenius law, whereas the fragile one displays a super-Arrhenius law, with a much steeper slowing down upon cooling. Recently, however, it was discovered that many materials such as water, oxides, and metals do not obey this simple classification, apparently exhibiting a fragile-to-strong transition far above [Formula: see text] Such a transition is particularly well known for water, and it is now regarded as one of water's most important anomalies. This phenomenon has been attributed to either an unusual glass transition behavior or the crossing of a Widom line emanating from a liquid-liquid critical point. Here by computer simulations of two popular water models and through analyses of experimental data, we show that the emergent fragile-to-strong transition is actually a crossover between two Arrhenius regimes with different activation energies, which can be naturally explained by a two-state description of the dynamics. Our finding provides insight into the fragile-to-strong transition observed in a wide class of materials.

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