Hersey and Blanchard's situational leadership theory (1982) is widely known and used, but has limited, mixed empirical validation. This study examines the underlying assumptions regarding the theory's prescriptions that subordinate maturity moderates the relationship of leader task and relationship behaviors with indicants of leader effectiveness. Results of this analysis do not support these assumptions. An examination of the more complex predictions of the theory also show little support for it. Findings are discussed in terms of future research and theory development.
When an organization begins building knowledge-based systems, it has questions. Can knowledge engineering be done by average people? Do we need high-priced knowledge engineers? Do we need new software? Do we need a new system development philosophy? This article contends that the answers to these questions are: yes, no, yes, and yes, respectively. It develops these answers by describing a Knowledge-Based-System Development Life Cycle [KBSDLC] that shows what must be changed and what can be retained from conventional Synchronous Data Link Controls (SDLC).Building computer-based information systems involves some basic tasks: problem detection, identification, and definition; solution definition (functional requirements); system analysis; logical and physical system design; procedure and program design; procedure and program writing; program testing; integrated testing; conversion and installation; and operation. The organization of these tasks may change, but the tasks still must be performed [19, pp. 71-72].Transaction processing systems (TPS], decision support systems (DSS), and knowledge-based systems (KBS), offer different development challenges. TPSs perform routine data processing, are designed around forms, procedures, inputs, and outputs, and often address well-structured problems. Depending on system size, familiarity with the technology, and problem '6^1989 ACM 000]-0782/afl/0'100-04n2/S1.50 structure [11], the uncertainty about project success varies from low to high.System development hfe cycles (SDLCs) originated when most systems were TPSs. Methodologies like Pride, Spectrum, and SDM appeared in the early 1970s. These methodologies and other SDLCs [15, pp, 371-391, 17, 26] are usually variants of Royce's [31] or Boehm's [8] life cycles. One SDLC [15, pp. 371-391] organizes the basic tasks as shown in Figure 1, Integrated testing does not fit into the phases of this SDLC, and the post-audit phase, as important as it is, includes no essential basic tasks.Many organizations execute SDLC phases sequentially, with a sign-off after each phase, an approach that is suitable for many TPSs. This approach assumes that users know their information requirements [1]. that design is straightforward and implementation is the real problem [33], and that sign-offs ensure satisf\ang user specifications. LInfortunately, knowing information requirements in advance is unlikely [5,6,13]; straightforward design is rare, even with TPSs; and sign-offs invite difficulties [12]. Therefore, Royce [31] and Boehm [8] allow for iteration. In practice, however, people resist admitting mistakes [36]; iterating is politically and economically difficult; and people still assume specifications must precede system building.These SDLC shortcomings become more serious with DSSs. DSSs help decision makers address ill-structured problems by using analytical models to manipulate data 482 Communications of the ACM
Traditional scale construction procedures were used to develop an 11-item scale to measure psychological maturity. Preliminary results from two independent samples suggest an internally consistent scale when completed by managers, peers, and by self-report. Manager and peer ratings were significantly correlated, suggesting convergent validity between "objective" raters. Manager and peer ratings were also both significantly correlated with a performance measure. Findings suggest the scale warrants additional examination in other samples and settings. Variables that might show relationships with psychological maturity are suggested.
In spite of end-user programming, for the foreseeable future users and information systems (IS) specialists will build systems together. A better understanding of this partnership (which has a troubled history) will help IS manager5 and users improve their management skills. This study investigates the relative contributions to project effectiveness of problem-solving cornpsence, the quality of the working relationship, and the quality of the development process. Seventy-five medium-sized projects in 16 organizations were investigated using individual, one hour, structured interviews with the IS project leader and with the primary user. Results suggest that more complex models should be used to study system development. Moreover, problem-solving competence demonstrated a complex effect on project effectiveness.
A joint venture between a university-based research institute and a health insurance company to build a knowledge-based system to perform medical review of health insurance claims is described. In an early formal test, the system made appropriate decisions for approximately 70% of the claims. The remaining claims were referred to human reviewers in accordance with company policy. Forming a joint venture proved to be a reasonable cost alternative to distant and more expensive consultants. The article examines the impact of the differing cultures of the company and the university on the cohesion in the joint knowledge engineering group. It also examines the current fiterature on the development cycle for building knowledge-based systems as the framework for analyzing the events in this project, particularly the influence of the claims review task on system design. From another perspective, it examines participant roles in terms of shifts of attention among domain knowledge, knowledge representation, system performance, and the kinds of skills needed to improve the evolving system. The conclusion includes a series of recommendations that may assist other companies and universities setting up similar joint ventures.
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