Zebedee Mwandi and colleagues discuss Kenya's scale-up of voluntary medical male circumcision services, highlighting government leadership, a clear implementation strategy, and program flexibility and innovation as keys to Kenya's success.

IntroductionSurveillance of recent HIV infections in national testing services has the potential to inform primary prevention programming activities. Focusing on procedures required to accurately determine recent infection, and the potential for recent infection surveillance to inform prevention efforts, we present the results of three independent but linked pilots of recency testing.MethodsTo distinguish recently acquired HIV infection from long‐standing infection, in 2018 we applied a Recent Infection Testing Algorithm that combined a laboratory‐based Limiting Antigen Avidity Enzyme Immunoassay with clinical information (viral‐load; history of prior HIV diagnosis; antiretroviral therapy‐exposure). We explored potential misclassification of test results and analysed the characteristics of participants with recent infection. We applied the algorithm in antenatal clinics providing prevention of mother‐to‐child transmission services in Siaya County, Kenya, outreach sites serving female sex workers in Zimbabwe, and routine HIV testing and counselling facilities in Nairobi, Kenya. In Nairobi, we also conducted recency testing among partners of HIV‐positive participants.ResultsIn Siaya County, 2.3% (10/426) of HIV‐positive pregnant women were classified as recent. A risk factor analysis comparing women testing recent with those testing HIV‐negative found women in their first trimester were significantly more likely to test recent than those in their second or third trimester. In Zimbabwe, 10.5% (33/313) of female sex workers testing HIV‐positive through the outreach programme were classified recent. A risk factor analysis of women testing recent versus those testing HIV‐negative, found no strong evidence of an association with recent infection. In Nairobi, among 532 HIV‐positive women and men, 8.6% (46) were classified recent. Among partners of participants, almost a quarter of those who tested HIV‐positive were classified as recent (23.8%; 5/21). In all three settings, the inclusion of clinical information helped improve the positive predictive value of recent infection testing by removing cases that were likely misclassified.ConclusionsWe successfully identified recently acquired infections among persons testing HIV‐positive in routine testing settings and highlight the importance of incorporating additional information to accurately classify recent infection. We identified a number of groups with a significantly higher proportion of recent infection, suggesting recent infection surveillance, when rolled‐out nationally, may help in further targeting primary prevention efforts.

Background: Serological tests can distinguish recent (in the prior 12 months) from long-term HIV infection. Integrating recency testing into routine HIV testing services (HTS) can provide important information on transmission clusters and prioritize clients for partner testing. This study assessed the feasibility and use of integrating HIV recency into routine testing. Methods: We conducted a multi-method study at 14 facilities in Kenya, and key informant interviews with health care providers. We abstracted clinical record data, collected specimens, tested specimens for recent infection, returned results to participants, and conducted a follow-up survey for those recently infected. Results: From March to October 2018, we enrolled 532 clients who were diagnosed HIV-positive for the first time. Of these, 46 (8.6%) were recently infected. Women aged 15–24 years had 2.9 (95% confidence interval: 1.46 to 5.78) times higher adjusted odds of recent infection compared with 15–24-year-old men and those tested within the past 12 months having 2.55 (95% confidence interval: 0.38 to 4.70) times higher adjusted odds compared with those tested ≥12 months previously. Fourteen of 17 providers interviewed found the integration of recency testing into routine HTS services acceptable and feasible. Among clients who completed the follow-up interview, most (92%) felt that the recency results were useful. Conclusions: Integrating recent infection testing into routine HTS services in Kenya is feasible and largely acceptable to clients and providers. More studies should be done on possible physical and social harms related to returning results, and the best uses of the recent infection data at an individual and population level.

Introduction Testing for recent HIV infection can distinguish recently acquired infection from long-standing infections. Given current interest in the implementation of recent infection testing algorithms (RITA), we report our experiences in implementing a RITA in three pilot studies and highlight important issues to consider when conducting recency testing in routine settings. Methods We applied a RITA, incorporating a limited antigen (LAg) avidity assay, in different routine HIV service-delivery settings in 2018: antenatal care clinics in Siaya County, Kenya, HIV testing and counselling facilities in Nairobi, Kenya, and female sex workers clinics in Zimbabwe. Discussions were conducted with study coordinators, laboratory leads, and facility-based stakeholders to evaluate experiences and lessons learned in relation to implementing recency testing. Results In Siaya County 10/426 (2.3%) of women testing HIV positive were classified as recent, compared to 46/530 (8.7%) of women and men in Nairobi and 33/313 (10.5%) of female sex workers in Zimbabwe. Across the study setting, we observed differences in acceptance, transport and storage of dried blood spot (DBS) or venous blood samples. For example, the acceptance rate when testing venous blood was 11% lower than when using DBS. Integrating our study into existing services ensured a quick start of the study and kept the amount of additional resources required low. From a laboratory perspective, the LAg avidity assay was initially difficult to operationalise, but developing a network of laboratories and experts to work together helped to improve this. A challenge that was not overcome was the returning of RITA test results to clients. This was due to delays in laboratory testing, the need for multiple test results to satisfy the RITA, difficulties in aligning clinic visits, and participants opting not to return for test results. Conclusion We completed three pilot studies using HIV recency testing based on a RITA in Kenya and Zimbabwe. The main lessons we learned were related to sample collection and handling, LAg avidity assay performance, integration into existing services and returning of test results to participants. Our real-world experience could provide helpful guidance to people currently working on the implementation of HIV recency testing in sub-Saharan Africa.