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Abbreviations: KELEA, kinetic energy limiting electrostatic attraction; ACE, alternative cellular energy; ADP, adenosine diphosphate; ATP, adenosine triphosphate; CPE, cytopathic effect; UV, ultraviolet; GC, ms gas chromatograph-mass spectroscopy; EDX, energy dispersive x-ray IntroductionAll matter is composed of atoms, many of which are combined into molecules. Apart from water, which consists of an oxygen atom bound separately to two hydrogen atoms, the major compounds in living organisms are carbon containing molecules. These include lipid hydrocarbons (carbon plus hydrogen), carbohydrates (carbon plus hydrogen plus oxygen), proteins (carbon plus hydrogen plus oxygen plus nitrogen) and nucleic acids (carbon plus hydrogen plus oxygen plus nitrogen plus phosphorus). These and related groupings of compounds are collectively referred to as organic molecules. The remaining compounds in existence are termed inorganic molecules. Atoms can also remain unbound. The study of chemistry includes the process by which atoms can be switched between the bound and unbound states. It also includes the chemical reactions by which the atoms within a molecule or group of molecules can rearrange to yield different molecules.Several types of chemical bonding occur between atoms and between molecules. i) Unbound atoms and atoms within molecules can be electrically charged due either to having one to three greater or lesser number of electrons, when compared with the number of protons. Atoms with more electrons than protons are electrically negative, while atoms with fewer electrons than protons are positively charged. Atoms with opposing charges can bind electro statically in ionic bonds. ii) Different atoms can bind closer to one another in a covalent manner, which involves the sharing (overlapping) of electrons. Atoms with a propensity to contribute shared electrons are termed nucleophiles, while those able to accept shared electrons are termed electrophiles. iii) A third type of atom binding is typical of metals and results from the external placing of pooled outer electrons from multiple atoms. The pooled electrons act as an enveloping electrostatic constraint on the movement of the enclosed atoms. iv) Molecules can also loosely interact electro statically if the charge distribution within individual atoms undergoes minor coordinated oscillations, or if they are dipolar with regions of excess positive and negative charges. One example is the rapid on-off binding that occurs between dipolar water molecules in the liquid state. The covalent bonding of oxygen with the hydrogen atoms involves sharing of the single electrons from the two hydrogen atoms with the electrons of the oxygen atom. This leaves each hydrogen atom with a slightly positive charge. Conversely, the oxygen atom acquires a slight negative charge. The opposing charges on the hydrogen and oxygen atoms of different water molecules lead to transient, yet repetitive intermolecular bonding. The resulting loose cohesion is referred to as hydrogen bonding and explains why ...