MicroRNA (miRNA) is a short, single-stranded, non-coding RNA found in eukaryotic cells that can regulate the expression of many genes at the post-transcriptional level. Among various plant miRNAs with diverse functions, miR156 plays a key role in biological processes, including developmental regulation, immune response, metabolic regulation, and abiotic stress. MiRNAs have become the regulatory center for plant growth and development. MicroRNA156 (miR156) is a highly conserved and emerging tool for the improvement of plant traits, including crop productivity and stress tolerance. Fine-tuning of squamosa promoter biding-like (SPL) gene expression might be a useful strategy for crop improvement. Here, we studied the regulation of the miR156 module and its interaction with SPL factors to understand the developmental transition of various plant species. Furthermore, this review provides a strong background for plant biotechnology and is an important source of information for further molecular breeding to optimize farming productivity.
Rice false smut (RFS) is the most important grain disease in rice production worldwide. Its epidemics not only lead to yield loss but also reduce grain quality because of multiple mycotoxins generated by the causative pathogen, Villosiclava virens (anamorph: Ustilaginoidea virens). The pathogen infects developing spikelets and specifically converts individual grain into a RFS ball that is established from mycelia covered with powdery chlamydospores, sometimes generating sclerotia. RFS balls seem to be randomly formed in some grains on a panicle of a plant in the paddy field. However, epidemics differ largely among varieties, fields, and seasons. This chapter introduces current understanding on the disease, mycotoxins, the biology of the pathogen, pathogenesis of RFS, rice resistance, the disease cycle, the disease control, and assay.
MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a class of small (20-24 nucleotides (nt) long) non-coding RNAs. One mature miRNA can be transcribed from one or more gene loci known as miRNA genes (MIRs). The transcript of a MIR forms a stem-loop structure that is processed into a 20-24-nt miRNA-5p/−3p duplex by RNase III family endoribonucleases such as Dicer-like1 (DCL1). In turn, the overhang ends of the duplex are methylated by HUA ENHANCER 1 (HEN1), generating stabilized mature miRNAs. The mature miRNAs are loaded onto ARGONAUTE (AGO) proteins, forming a miRNAinduced gene silencing complex (miRISC). Then, the miRISC binds to target sites with sequences complementary to the miRNAs, leading to either cleavage or translational inhibition of the target mRNAs, or methylation of the target sequences, resulting in post-transcriptional and transcriptional gene silencing, respectively. In the past decade, more than 700 miRNAs have been identified in rice, a subset of which have been found to be responsive to the rice blast fungus, Magnaporthe oryzae, or its elicitors. Moreover, members of 10 miRNA families have been found to positively or negatively regulate rice defense against M. oryzae, namely miR160, miR164, miR166, miR167, miR169, miR319, miR396, miR398, miR444 and miR7695. This review summarizes the identification and functional characterization of the miRNAs, which respond to M. oryzae or its elicitors and describes the current understanding of the complicated but wellorganized network in the context of rice-M. oryzae interaction.
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