The present study examined body image and associated psychological traits in 154 college men. The comprehensive battery of measures included a novel computerized test of body image perception, the Somatomorphic Matrix, in which subjects could navigate through a range of body images, spanning a wide range of body fat and muscularity, to answer various questions posed by the computer. Subjects also completed paper-and-pencil instruments assessing depression, characteristics of eating disorders, self-esteem, and use of performance-enhancing substances. Findings suggest that contemporary American men display substantial body dissatisfaction and that this dissatisfaction is closely associated with depression, measures of eating pathology, use of performance-enhancing substances, and low self-esteem. Muscle belittlement, believing that one is less muscular than he is, presented as an important construct in the body dissatisfaction of men.

Objective: We hypothesized that the physiques of male action toys -small plastic figures used by children in play -would provide some index of evolving American cultural ideals of male body image. Method: We obtained examples of the most popular American action toys manufactured over the last 30 years. We then measured the waist, chest, and bicep circumference of each figure and scaled these measurements using classical allometry to the height of an actual man (1.78 m). Results: We found that the figures have grown much more muscular over time, with many contemporary figures far exceeding the muscularity of even the largest human bodybuilders. Discussion: Our observations appear to represent a "male analog" of earlier studies examining female dolls, such as Barbie. Together, these studies of children's toys suggest that cultural expectations may contribute to body image disorders in both sexes.

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Objective: Many individuals, attempting to gain muscle or lose fat, use ‘dietary supplements’. Though widely available over the counter or by mail order in America and Europe, some of these ‘supplements’ are actually potent drugs such as androstenedione and ephedrine. We sought to estimate the prevalence of these forms of drug use in American gymnasiums. Methods: We distributed anonymous questionnaires to 511 clients entering five gymnasiums, asking about use of both supplements and anabolic steroids. Results: Among men, 18% reported use of androstenedione and/or other adrenal hormones, 25% reported ephedrine use, and 5% reported anabolic steroid use within the last 3 years; among women these rates were 3, 13 and 0%. Extrapolating from these figures to the United States as a whole, we estimated that possibly 1.5 million American gymnasium clients have used adrenal hormones and 2.8 million have used ephedrine within the last 3 years. Conclusions: Millions of men and women are currently using potent drugs, widely sold over the counter as ‘supplements’, despite their known adverse effects, unknown long-term risks, and possible potential for causing abuse or dependence.