We present a molecular phylogenetic analysis of caenophidian (advanced) snakes using sequences from two mitochondrial genes (12S and 16S rRNA)

The use of environmental DNA (eDNA) has become an applicable noninvasive tool with which to obtain information about biodiversity. A subdiscipline of eDNA is iDNA (invertebrate-derived DNA), where genetic material ingested by invertebrates is used to characterize the biodiversity of the species that served as hosts. While promising, these techniques are still in their infancy, as they have only been explored on limited numbers of samples from only a single or a few different locations. In this study, we investigate the suitability of iDNA extracted from more than 3,000 haematophagous terrestrial leeches as a tool for detecting a wide range of terrestrial vertebrates across five different geographical regions on three different continents. These regions cover almost the full geographical range of haematophagous terrestrial leeches, thus representing all parts of the world where this method might apply. We identify host taxa through metabarcoding coupled with high-throughput sequencing on Illumina and IonTorrent sequencing platforms to decrease economic costs and workload and thereby make the approach attractive for practitioners in conservation management. We identified hosts in four different taxonomic vertebrate classes: mammals, birds, reptiles and amphibians, belonging to at least 42 different taxonomic families. We find that vertebrate blood ingested by haematophagous terrestrial leeches throughout their distribution is a viable source of DNA with which to examine a wide range of vertebrates. Thus, this study provides encouraging support for the potential of haematophagous terrestrial leeches as a tool for detecting and monitoring terrestrial vertebrate biodiversity.

We assessed the extinction risks of Malagasy amphibians by evaluating their distribution, occurrence in protected areas, population trends, habitat quality, and prevalence in commercial trade. We estimated and mapped the distribution of each of the 220 described Malagasy species and applied, for the first time, the IUCN Red List categories and criteria to all species described at the time of the assessment. Nine species were categorized as critically endangered, 21 as endangered, and 25 as vulnerable. The most threatened species occur on the High Plateau and/or have been subjected to overcollection for the pet trade, but restricted extent of occurrence and ongoing habitat destruction were identified as the most important factors influencing extinction threats. The two areas with the majority of threatened species were the northern TsaratananaMarojejy-Masoala highlands and the southeastern Anosy Mountains. The current system of protected areas includes 82% of the threatened amphibian species. Of the critically endangered species, 6 did not occur in any protected area. For conservation of these species we recommend the creation of a reserve for the species of the Mantella aurantiaca group, the inclusion of two Scaphiophryne species in the Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species Appendix II, and the suspension of commercial collecting for Mantella cowani. Field surveys during the last 15 years reveal no pervasive extinction of Malagasy amphibians resulting from disease or other agents, as has been reported in some other areas of the world. Resumen: Evaluamos los riesgos de extinción de anfibios malgaches mediante el análisis de su distribución, ocurrencia enáreas protegidas, tendencias poblacionales, calidad del hábitat y prevalencia en el comercio. Estimamos y mapeamos la distribución de cada una de las 220 especies descritas para Madagascar y aplicamos, por primera vez, las categorías y criterios de la Lista Roja de IUCN a todas las especies descritas al momento Paper Andreone et al. Conservation of Malagasy Amphibians 1791 de la evaluación. Nueve especies fueron clasificadas en peligro crítico, 21 como amenazadas y 25 como vulnerables. Las especies más amenazadas ocurren en High Plateau y/o han sido sujetas a sobreexplotación para el comercio de mascotas, pero identificamos a la extensión restringida de ocurrencia y a la destrucción del hábitat como los factores que más influyen sobre las amenazas de extinción. Las mesetas de TsaratananaMarojejy-Masoala en el norte y las Montañas Anosy en el sureste fueron las dosáreas con la mayoría de especies amenazadas. El actual sistema deáreas protegidas incluye a 82% de las especies de anfibios amenazadas. De las especies en peligro crítico, 6 no ocurrieron en ningunaárea protegida. Para la conservación de estas especies recomendamos la creación de una reserva para especies del grupo de Mantella aurantiaca, la inclusión de dos especies de Scaphiophryne en el Apéndice II de la Convención Internacional para el Comercio de Especies en Peligro y la suspensi...

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Phylogenetic relationships among genera of African colubrids were evaluated using estimates of divergence among serum albumins compared by microcomplement fixation. Representatives of about half of the extant genera of African colubrids, as well as the Elapidae, Atractaspis and the Madagascan colubrid Leioheterodon, were analysed. The tree of best fit to the data has an unresolved basal polychotomy comprising at least five lineages of colubrids, as well as Elapidae and Atractaspis; thus, colubrids were not demonstrably monophyletic with these data. Two cosmopolitan clades, colubrines and natricines, are represented in Africa by series of closely related genera, but divergence among other genera is relatively great. Rate tests show that this is apparently not due to higher rates of albumin evolution in these, relative to other colubrids. Among the other associations supported by the immunological data are: ( I ) Psammophis-(Rhamphiophis-Dipsina)-Malpolon-Psarnmophylax;(2) Ambhodipsas-Macrelaps;( 3 ) (Lycodonomorphus-Lamprophis)-Meheha; and (4) Colubrinae-Natricinae. Grayia is questionably associated with the colubrine-natricine lineage.Prosymna and Lycodon are clearly members of the colubrine clade, and Amplorhinus possibly associates with Leioheferodon. Gonionotophis, Duberria, Lycophidion and Pseudaspis show no strong association with any other genera, and represent other basal or near-basal clades within the colubridlelapid radiation. The immunological data do not support a clade comprising the Elapidae, Atractaspic and some 'aparallactines' relative to Viperidae and other colubrids. The basal colubrid-elapid-Afractaspis divergence occurred more than 30 Myr ago, and the fossil record of colubrids in Africa greatly underestimates both the age and clade diversity of this group. In contrast to the pattern of radiation in the neotropics, where most colubrids belong to one of three major clades, in Africa only the colubrine lineage comprises a substantial portion of the extant generic diversity; most other genera stem from relatively ancient cladogenetic events and have few living representatives.

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