(14), Jamaica, and the Dominican Republic (13, 17). The rapid geographic expansion of the virus is attributed to movement by viremic birds during local and migratory flight behavior. To date, there is no effective drug treatment against WN virus infection and surveillance and mosquito control measures have not significantly influenced the number of human infections (27). A vaccine against WN virus represents an important approach to the prevention and control of this emerging disease.The ChimeriVax technology has been successfully used to develop a live vaccine against Japanese encephalitis (JE) virus that is now in phase II trials (23). JE virus is a close genetic relative of WN virus (31), a fact that expedited use of this technology to develop multiple WN virus vaccine candidates. The ChimeriVax technology employs the yellow fever (YF) 17D vaccine capsid and nonstructural genes to deliver the envelope genes (prM and E) of other flaviviruses. In the work presented here, the envelope genes of YF 17D were replaced with the corresponding genes of the wild-type WN virus NY99 strain previously described by Lanciotti et al. (19). The resulting YF/WN chimera lacked the mouse neuroinvasive property of WN virus and is less neurovirulent than YF 17D vaccine in both mouse and monkey models. Because WN virus, like other flaviviruses in the genus, is neurotropic for mammals (21, 29), attenuating point mutations were later introduced in the envelope of the YF/WN chimera to further reduce its virulence. Mutation sites were targeted only to regions of the envelope (E) protein gene and were based on previous observations by others (1,3,28,32) pertaining to attenuation phenotypes in related flaviviruses: specifically JE and tick-borne encephalitis viruses. Site-directed mutations in the WN virus E gene of the chimeric prototype vaccine, ChimeriVax-West Nile 01 , (ChimeriVax-WN 01 ) resulted in a significant reduction in virus neurovirulence. Here we discuss a vaccine in a YF vaccine backbone; the WN virus envelope (E) protein mutagenesis rationale; and the assessment of the safety, immunogenicity, efficacy, and genetic stability of these ChimeriVax-WN vaccine candidates in the mouse and macaque models. MATERIALS AND METHODSYF/WN chimeric clones and molecular procedures for virus assembly. Chimeric flaviviruses were constructed with the ChimeriVax two-plasmid technology previously described (9). Briefly, the two-plasmid system provides plasmid stability in Escherichia coli by dividing the cloned YF backbone into two plasmids. This provides smaller plasmids that are more stable to manipulate the YF sequences facilitating replacement of the prM and E genes of the flavivirus target vaccine. The WN virus prM and E genes used were cloned from the WN flamingo isolate 383-99 sequence (GenBank accession no. AF196835; kindly provided by John Roehrig, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colo.). Virus prME sequence cDNA was obtained by reverse transcription-PCR (RT-PCR) (XL-PCR kit; Applied Biosystems, Foster City, C...

A chimeric yellow fever (YF)-dengue type 2 (dengue-2) virus (ChimeriVax-D2) was constructed using a recombinant cDNA infectious clone of a YF vaccine strain (YF 17D) as a backbone into which we inserted the premembrane (prM) and envelope (E) genes of dengue-2 virus (strain PUO-218 from a case of dengue fever in Bangkok, Thailand). The chimeric virus was recovered from the supernatant of Vero cells transfected with RNA transcripts and amplified once in these cells to yield a titer of 6.3 log 10 PFU/ml. The ChimeriVax-D2 was not neurovirulent for 4-week-old outbred mice inoculated intracerebrally. This virus was evaluated in rhesus monkeys for its safety (induction of viremia) and protective efficacy (induction of anti-dengue-2 neutralizing antibodies and protection against challenge). In one experiment, groups of non-YF-immune monkeys received graded doses of ChimeriVax-D2; a control group received only the vaccine diluents. All monkeys (except the control group) developed a brief viremia and showed no signs of illness. Sixty-two days postimmunization, animals were challenged with 5.0 log 10 focus forming units (FFU) of a wild-type dengue-2 virus. No viremia (<1.7 log 10 FFU/ml) was detected in any vaccinated group, whereas all animals in the placebo control group developed viremia. All vaccinated monkeys developed neutralizing antibodies in a dose-dependent response. In another experiment, viremia and production of neutralizing antibodies were determined in YF-immune monkeys that received either ChimeriVax-D2 or a wild-type dengue-2 virus. Low viremia was detected in ChimeriVax-D2-inoculated monkeys, whereas all dengue-2-immunized animals became viremic. All of these animals were protected against challenge with a wild-type dengue-2 virus, whereas all YF-immune monkeys and nonimmune controls became viremic upon challenge. Genetic stability of ChimeriVax-D2 was assessed by continuous in vitro passage in VeroPM cells. The titer of ChimeriVax-D2, the attenuated phenotype for 4-week-old mice, and the sequence of the inserted prME genes were unchanged after 18 passages in Vero cells. The high replication efficiency, attenuation phenotype in mice and monkeys, immunogenicity and protective efficacy, and genomic stability of ChimeriVax-D2 justify it as a novel vaccine candidate to be evaluated in humans.

We previously reported construction of a chimeric yellow fever-dengue type 2 virus (YF/DEN2) and determined its safety and protective efficacy in rhesus monkeys (F. Guirakhoo et al., J. Virol. 74:5477-5485, 2000). In this paper, we describe construction of three additional YF/DEN chimeras using premembrane (prM) and envelope (E) genes of wild-type (WT) clinical isolates: DEN1 (strain PUO359, isolated in 1980 in Thailand), DEN3 (strain PaH881/88, isolated in 1988 in Thailand), and DEN4 (strain 1228, isolated in 1978 in Indonesia). These chimeric viruses (YF/DEN1, YF/DEN3, and YF/DEN4) replicated to ϳ7.5 log 10 PFU/ml in Vero cells, were not neurovirulent in 3-to 4-week-old ICR mice inoculated by the intracerebral route, and were immunogenic in monkeys. All rhesus monkeys inoculated subcutaneously with one dose of these chimeric viruses (as monovalent or tetravalent formulation) developed viremia with magnitudes similar to that of the YF 17D vaccine strain (YF-VAX) but significantly lower than those of their parent WT viruses. Eight of nine monkeys inoculated with monovalent YF/DEN1 -3, or -4 vaccine and six of six monkeys inoculated with tetravalent YF/DEN1-4 vaccine seroconverted after a single dose. When monkeys were boosted with a tetravalent YF/ DEN1-4 dose 6 months later, four of nine monkeys in the monovalent YF/DEN groups developed low levels of viremia, whereas no viremia was detected in any animals previously inoculated with either YF/DEN1-4 vaccine or WT DEN virus. An anamnestic response was observed in all monkeys after the second dose. No statistically significant difference in levels of neutralizing antibodies was observed between YF virus-immune and nonimmune monkeys which received the tetravalent YF/DEN1-4 vaccine or between tetravalent YF/DEN1-4-immune and nonimmune monkeys which received the YF-VAX. However, preimmune monkeys developed either no detectable viremia or a level of viremia lower than that in nonimmune controls. This is the first recombinant tetravalent dengue vaccine successfully evaluated in nonhuman primates.

A chimeric yellow fever (YF) virus/Japanese encephalitis (JE) virus vaccine (ChimeriVax-JE) was constructed by insertion of the prM-E genes from the attenuated JE virus SA14-14-2 vaccine strain into a full-length cDNA clone of YF 17D virus. Passage in fetal rhesus lung (FRhL) cells led to the emergence of a small-plaque virus containing a single Met3Lys amino acid mutation at E279, reverting this residue from the SA14-14-2 to the wild-type amino acid. A similar virus was also constructed by site-directed mutagenesis (J. Arroyo, F. Guirakhoo, S. Fenner, Z.-X. Zhang, T. P. Monath, and T. J. Chambers, J. Virol. 75:934-942, 2001). The E279 mutation is located in a beta-sheet in the hinge region of the E protein that is responsible for a pH-dependent conformational change during virus penetration from the endosome into the cytoplasm of the infected cell. In independent transfection-passage studies with FRhL or Vero cells, mutations appeared most frequently in hinge 4 (bounded by amino acids E266 to E284), reflecting genomic instability in this functionally important region. The E279 reversion caused a significant increase in neurovirulence as determined by the 50% lethal dose and survival distribution in suckling mice and by histopathology in rhesus monkeys. Based on sensitivity and comparability of results with those for monkeys, the suckling mouse is an appropriate host for safety testing of flavivirus vaccine candidates for neurotropism. After intracerebral inoculation, the E279 Lys virus was restricted with respect to extraneural replication in monkeys, as viremia and antibody levels (markers of viscerotropism) were significantly reduced compared to those for the E279 Met virus. These results are consistent with the observation that empirically derived vaccines developed by mouse brain passage of dengue and YF viruses have increased neurovirulence for mice but reduced viscerotropism for humans.The study of chimeric viruses has afforded new insights into the molecular basis of virulence and new prospects for vaccine development. For example, molecular clones of positive-strand alphaviruses (29, 39) and flaviviruses (4, 7, 13, 15) have been modified by insertion of structural genes encoding the viral envelope and determinants involved in neutralization, cell attachment, fusion, and internalization. The replication of these chimeric viruses is controlled in part by nonstructural proteins and the noncoding termini expressed by the parental strain, while the structural proteins from the donor genes afford specific immunity. The biological characteristics of chimeric viruses are determined by both the donor and recipient virus genes. By comparing constructs with nucleotide sequence differences across the donor genes, it is possible to dissect out the functional roles of individual amino acid residues in virulence and attenuation.Using a chimeric yellow fever (YF) virus that incorporated the prM-E genes from an attenuated strain (SA14-14-2) of Japanese encephalitis (JE) virus, a detailed examination of the roles of 10 a...

Chimeric yellow fever (YF)-dengue (DEN) viruses (ChimeriVax-DEN) were reconstructed to correct amino acid substitutions within the envelope genes of original constructs described by Guirakhoo et al. (2001, J. Virol. 75, 7290-7304). Viruses were analyzed and compared to the previous constructs containing mutations in terms of their growth kinetics in Vero cells, neurovirulence in mice, and immunogenicity in monkeys as monovalent or tetravalent formulations. All chimeras grew to high titers [ approximately 7 to 8 log(10), plaque-forming units (PFU)/ml] in Vero cells and were less neurovirulent than YF 17D vaccine in mice. For monkey experiments, the dose of DEN2 chimera was lowered to 3 log(10) PFU in the tetravalent mixture in an effort to reduce its dominant immunogenicity. The magnitude of viremia in ChimeriVax-DEN immunized monkeys was similar to that of YF-VAX, but significantly lower than those induced by wild-type DEN viruses. All monkeys developed high levels of neutralizing antibodies against homologous (chimeras) or heterologous (wild-type DEN viruses isolated from different geographical regions) viruses after a single dose of monovalent or tetravalent vaccine. Administration of a second dose of tetravalent vaccine 2 months later increased titers to both homologous and heterologous viruses. A dose adjustment for dengue 2 chimera resulted in a more balanced response against dengue 1, 2, and 3 viruses, but a somewhat higher response against chimeric dengue 4 virus. This indicates that further formulations for dose adjustments need to be tested in monkeys to identify an optimal formulation for humans.

Tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) virus is the most important human pathogen transmitted by ticks in Eurasia. Inactivated vaccines are available but require multiple doses and frequent boosters to induce and maintain immunity. Thus far, the goal of developing a safe, live attenuated vaccine effective after a single dose has remained elusive. Here we used a replication-defective (single-cycle) flavivirus platform, RepliVax, to generate a safe, single-dose TBE vaccine. Several RepliVax-TBE candidates attenuated by a deletion in the capsid gene were constructed using different flavivirus backbones containing the envelope genes of TBE virus. RepliVax-TBE based on a West Nile virus backbone (RV-WN/TBE) grew more efficiently in helper cells than candidates based on Langat E5, TBE, and yellow fever 17D backbones, and was found to be highly immunogenic and efficacious in mice. Live chimeric yellow fever 17D/TBE, Dengue 2/TBE, and Langat E5/TBE candidates were also constructed but were found to be underattenuated. RV-WN/TBE was demonstrated to be highly immunogenic in Rhesus macaques after a single dose, inducing a significantly more durable humoral immune response compared with three doses of a licensed, adjuvanted human inactivated vaccine. Its immunogenicity was not significantly affected by preexisting immunity against WN. Immunized monkeys were protected from a stringent surrogate challenge. These results support the identification of a single-cycle TBE vaccine with a superior product profile to existing inactivated vaccines, which could lead to improved vaccine coverage and control of the disease.flavivirus vaccine | prophylaxis | preclinical | nonhuman primate

By combining molecular-biological techniques with our increased understanding of the effect of gene sequence modification on viral function, yellow fever 17D, a positive-strand RNA virus vaccine, has been manipulated to induce a protective immune response against viruses of the same family (e.g. Japanese encephalitis and dengue viruses). Triggered by the emergence of West Nile virus infections in the New World afflicting humans, horses and birds, the success of this recombinant technology has prompted the rapid development of a live-virus attenuated candidate vaccine against West Nile virus.

Herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) is a sexually transmitted virus that is highly prevalent worldwide, causing a range of symptoms that result in significant healthcare costs and human suffering. ACAM529 is a replication-defective vaccine candidate prepared by growing the previously described dl5-29 on a cell line appropriate for GMP manufacturing. This vaccine, when administered subcutaneously, was previously shown to protect mice from a lethal vaginal HSV-2 challenge and to afford better protection than adjuvanted glycoprotein D (gD) in guinea pigs. Here we show that ACAM529 given via the intramuscular route affords significantly greater immunogenicity and protection in comparison with subcutaneous administration in the mouse vaginal HSV-2 challenge model. Further, we describe a side-by-side comparison of intramuscular ACAM529 with a gD vaccine across a range of challenge virus doses. While differences in protection against death are not significant, ACAM529 protects significantly better against mucosal infection, reducing peak challenge virus shedding at the highest challenge dose by over 500-fold versus 5-fold for gD. Over 27% (11/40) of ACAM529-immunized animals were protected from viral shedding while 2.5% (1/40) were protected by the gD vaccine. Similarly, 35% (7/20) of mice vaccinated with ACAM529 were protected from infection of their dorsal root ganglia while none of the gD-vaccinated mice were protected. These results indicate that measuring infection of the vaginal mucosa and of dorsal root ganglia over a range of challenge doses is more sensitive than evaluating survival at a single challenge dose as a means of directly comparing vaccine efficacy in the mouse vaginal challenge model. The data also support further investigation of ACAM529 for prophylaxis in human subjects.