SummaryAn estimated 19% of the world's 9,856 extant bird species are migratory, including some 1,600 species of land-and waterbirds. In 2008, 11% of migratory land-and waterbirds were classed by BirdLife International as threatened or near-threatened on the IUCN Red List. Red List indices show that these migrants have become more threatened since 1988, with 33 species deteriorating and just six improving in status. There is also increasing evidence of regional declines. Population trend data show that more Nearctic-Neotropical migrants have declined than increased in North America since the 1980s, and more Palearctic-Afrotropical migrants breeding in Europe declined than increased during 1970-2000. Reviews of the status of migratory raptors show unfavourable conservation status for 51% of species in the African-Eurasian region (in 2005), and 33% of species in Central, South and East Asia (in 2007). Land-use change owing to agriculture is the most frequently cited threat affecting nearly 80% of all threatened and nearthreatened species. However, while agricultural intensification on the breeding grounds is often proposed as the major driver of declines in Palearctic-Afrotropical migrants, some species appear to be limited by the quantity and quality of available habitat in non-breeding areas, notably the drylands of tropical Africa. Forest fragmentation in breeding areas has contributed to the declines of Nearctic-Neotropical migrants with deforestation in non-breeding areas another possible factor. Infrastructure development including wind turbines, cables, towers and masts can also be a threat. Over-harvesting and persecution remain serious threats, particularly at key migration locations. Climate change is affecting birds already, is expected to exacerbate all these pressures, and may also increase competition between migratory and non-migratory species. The conservation of migratory birds thus requires a multitude of approaches. Many migratory birds require effective management of their critical sites, and Important Bird Areas (IBAs) provide an important foundation for such action; however to function effectively in conserving migratory species, IBAs need to be protected and the coherence of the network requires regular review. Since many migratory species (c. 55%) are widely dispersed across their breeding or nonbreeding ranges, it is essential to address the human-induced changes at the wider landscape scale, a very considerable challenge. Efforts to conserve migratory birds in one part of the range are less effective if unaddressed threats are reducing these species' populations and habitats elsewhere. International collaboration and coordinated action along migration flyways as a whole are thus key elements in any strategy for the conservation of migratory birds.

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The impact of factors that influence diabetes mellitus (DM) and impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) incidence rates among former gestation diabetes mellitus (GDM) patients undermine attempts at interstudy comparisons. The recommended diagnostic standards for GDM by oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) are the O'Sullivan and Mahan criteria and the World Health Organization (WHO) criteria for IGT, which result in prevalence rates of 2.5 and 7.2%, respectively, when applied to 752 unselected pregnant women. In applying the O'Sullivan and Mahan criteria, the current open-ended definition of GDM without rules either to exclude overt diabetes uncovered by pregnancy or to require a return to a normal OGTT after pregnancy is shown to be a major source of differences in subsequent incidence rates of diabetes. For subsequent nonpregnant diagnoses, the differences between WHO and National Diabetes Data Group criteria and the allowable modifications within each of the diagnostic standards all result in different incidence rates of diabetes. Review of 12 worldwide studies of diabetes among former GDM patients indicated a wide range of incidence rates, from 19 to 87% for combined DM and IGT and 6 to 62% for DM. In applying WHO DM criteria to GDM patients and control subjects, the excess risk of diabetes among GDM patients was 18% in Copenhagen and 30.9% in Boston, MA. The potential impact of varying observation periods within studies was seen when the application of an actuarial method added a further 50% to the Boston incidence rates of both GDM patients and control subjects. Although the variability in diabetes incidence rates is wide, there is broad general agreement on the predictive nature of gestational blood glucose levels.

ABSTRACT1. Manta and devil rays of the subfamily Mobulinae (mobulids) are rarely studied, large, pelagic elasmobranchs, with all eight of well-evaluated species listed on the IUCN Red List as threatened or near threatened.2. Mobulids have life history characteristics (matrotrophic reproduction, extremely low fecundity, and delayed age of first reproduction) that make them exceptionally susceptible to overexploitation.3. Targeted and bycatch mortality from fisheries is a globally important and increasing threat, and targeted fisheries are incentivized by the high value of the global trade in mobulid gill plates.4. Fisheries bycatch of mobulids is substantial in tuna purse seine fisheries. 5. Thirteen fisheries in 12 countries specifically targeting mobulids, and 30 fisheries in 23 countries with mobulid bycatch were identified.6. Aside from a few recently enacted national restrictions on capture, there is no comprehensive monitoring, assessment or control of mobulid fisheries or bycatch. Recent listing through the Convention on the This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) may benefit mobulids of the genus Manta (manta rays), but none of the mobulids in the genus Mobula (devil rays) are protected. 7. The relative economic costs of catch mitigation are minimal, particularly compared with a broad range of other, more complicated, marine conservation issues.

Understanding of juvenile life stages of large pelagic predators such as the white shark Carcharodon carcharias remains limited. We tracked 6 juvenile white sharks (147 to 250 cm total length) in the eastern Pacific using pop-up satellite archival tags for a total of 534 d, demonstrating that the nursery region of white sharks includes waters of southern California, USA, and Baja California, Mexico. Young-of-the-year sharks remained south of Point Conception whereas one 3 yr old shark moved north to Point Reyes. All juvenile white sharks displayed a diel change in behavior, with deeper mean positions during dawn, day and dusk (26 ± 15 m) than during night (6 ± 3 m). Sharks occasionally displayed deeper nocturnal movements during full moon nights. On average, vertical excursions were deeper and cooler for 3 yr olds (226 ± 81 m; 9.2 ± 0.9°C) than young-of-the-year animals (100 ± 59 m; 11.2 ± 1.4°C). Juvenile white sharks are captured as bycatch in both US and Mexican waters, suggesting that management of fishing mortality should be of increased concern.KEY WORDS: Juvenile white shark · Carcharodon carcharias · Habitat · Diel behavior · Satellite tag · BycatchResale or republication not permitted without written consent of the publisher

Maternal hyperphagia and hyperinsulinism characterize the second half of rat gestation. Within this period two distinct metabolic phases have been identified.

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a b s t r a c tManta and devil rays are an iconic group of globally distributed pelagic filter feeders, yet their evolutionary history remains enigmatic. We employed next generation sequencing of mitogenomes for nine of the 11 recognized species and two outgroups; as well as additional Sanger sequencing of two mitochondrial and two nuclear genes in an extended taxon sampling set. Analysis of the mitogenome coding regions in a Maximum Likelihood and Bayesian framework provided a well-resolved phylogeny. The deepest divergences distinguished three clades with high support, one containing Manta birostris, Manta alfredi, Mobula tarapacana, Mobula japanica and Mobula mobular; one containing Mobula kuhlii, Mobula eregoodootenkee and Mobula thurstoni; and one containing Mobula munkiana, Mobula hypostoma and Mobula rochebrunei. Mobula remains paraphyletic with the inclusion of Manta, a result that is in agreement with previous studies based on molecular and morphological data. A fossil-calibrated Bayesian random local clock analysis suggests that mobulids diverged from Rhinoptera around 30 Mya. Subsequent divergences are characterized by long internodes followed by short bursts of speciation extending from an initial episode of divergence in the Early and Middle Miocene (19-17 Mya) to a second episode during the Pliocene and Pleistocene (3.6 Mya -recent). Estimates of divergence dates overlap significantly with periods of global warming, during which upwelling intensity -and related high primary productivity in upwelling regions -decreased markedly. These periods are hypothesized to have led to fragmentation and isolation of feeding regions leading to possible regional extinctions, as well as the promotion of allopatric speciation. The closely shared evolutionary history of mobulids in combination with ongoing threats from fisheries and climate change effects on upwelling and food supply, reinforces the case for greater protection of this charismatic family of pelagic filter feeders.