Mass line leadership (similar to Lewinian "democratic" leadership and involving operant conditioning) played a critical part in Chinese Communist practice and its success in changing China. Mass line leadership, which may lead to thought reform, was implemented in small study groups by consciousness raising, study/thought revealing, and self-criticism/criticism. Mass line leadership and thought reform have roots in Chinese heritage and in the USSR, but also have significant new and unprecedented aspects.An earlier version of this article was prepared as part of a National Endowment for the Humanities Seminar at the University of Chicago entitled "Perspectives on Chinese History," under the direction of Ping-ti Ho. Most of the present version was written while the author was studying at Pendle Hill Quaker Study Center as part of a fellowship leave from Kingsborough Community College.
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