Summary The mouse X-inactivation center (Xic) orchestrates initiation of X inactivation by controlling the expression of the non-coding Xist transcript. The full extent of Xist’s regulatory landscape remains to be defined however. Here we use Chromosome Conformation Capture Carbon-Copy and super-resolution microscopy to analyse the spatial organisation of a 4.5Mb region including Xist. We uncover a series of discrete 200kb-1Mb topologically associating domains (TADs), present both before and after cell differentiation and on the active and inactive X. These domains align with several domain-wide epigenomic features as well as co-regulated gene clusters. Disruption of a TAD boundary causes ectopic chromosomal contacts and long-range transcriptional mis-regulation. Xist/Tsix illustrates the spatial segregation of oppositely regulated chromosomal neighborhoods, with their promoters lying in two adjacent TADs, each containing their known positive regulators. This led to the identification of a distal regulatory region of Tsix producing a novel long intervening RNA, Linx, within its TAD. In addition to uncovering a new principle of the cis-regulatory architecture of mammalian chromosomes, our study sets the stage for the full genetic dissection of the Xic.

During early development of female mouse embryos, both X chromosomes are transiently active. X gene dosage is then equalized between the sexes through the process of X chromosome inactivation (XCI). Whether the double dose of X-linked genes in females compared with males leads to sex-specific developmental differences has remained unclear. Using embryonic stem cells with distinct sex chromosome compositions as a model system, we show that two X chromosomes stabilize the naive pluripotent state by inhibiting MAPK and Gsk3 signaling and stimulating the Akt pathway. Since MAPK signaling is required to exit the pluripotent state, differentiation is paused in female cells as long as both X chromosomes are active. By preventing XCI or triggering it precociously, we demonstrate that this differentiation block is released once XX cells have undergone X inactivation. We propose that double X dosage interferes with differentiation, thus ensuring a tight coupling between X chromosome dosage compensation and development.

RORγt⁺ innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) are crucial players of innate immune responses and represent a major source of interleukin-22 (IL-22), which has an important role in mucosal homeostasis. The signals required by RORγt⁺ ILCs to express IL-22 and other cytokines have been elucidated only partially. Here we showed that RORγt⁺ ILCs can directly sense the environment by the engagement of the activating receptor NKp44. NKp44 triggering in RORγt⁺ ILCs selectively activated a coordinated proinflammatory program, including tumor necrosis factor (TNF), whereas cytokine stimulation preferentially induced IL-22 expression. However, combined engagement of NKp44 and cytokine receptors resulted in a strong synergistic effect. These data support the concept that NKp44⁺ RORγt⁺ ILCs can be activated without cytokines and are able to switch between IL-22 or TNF production, depending on the triggering stimulus.