Post‐traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a psychiatric disorder of high prevalence and major socioeconomic impact. Patients suffering from PTSD typically present intrusion and avoidance symptoms and alterations in arousal, mood and cognition that last for more than 1 month. Animal models are an indispensable tool to investigate underlying pathophysiological pathways and, in particular, the complex interplay of neuroendocrine, genetic and environmental factors that may be responsible for PTSD induction. Since the 1960s, numerous stress paradigms in rodents have been developed, based largely on Seligman's seminal formulation of ‘learned helplessness’ in canines. Rodent stress models make use of physiological or psychological stressors such as foot shock, underwater trauma, social defeat, early life stress or predator‐based stress. Apart from the brief exposure to an acute stressor, chronic stress models combining a succession of different stressors for a period of several weeks have also been developed. Chronic stress models in rats and mice may elicit characteristic PTSD‐like symptoms alongside, more broadly, depressive‐like behaviours. In this review, the major existing rodent models of PTSD are reviewed in terms of validity, advantages and limitations; moreover, significant results and implications for future research—such as the role of FKBP5, a mediator of the glucocorticoid stress response and promising target for therapeutic interventions—are discussed.

BackgroundOxytocin (OXT) is critically involved in the regulation of attachment and interpersonal function. In this study, emotional children’s movies were used to stimulate OXT secretion in patients with schizophrenia and healthy controls (HCs). Furthermore, associations of OXT levels with measures of attachment style (Psychosis Attachment Measure), childhood adversity (Childhood Trauma Questionnaire) and symptom severity [Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS)] were considered.MethodsIn 35 patients with schizophrenia and 35 matched HCs, radioimmunoassay with sample extraction was used to determine OXT plasma levels before and after viewing of movie scenes portraying emotional bonding and loss and compared to a non-emotional condition.ResultsStatistical analysis indicated lower baseline OXT levels in female patients than in all other groups. OXT reactivity during emotional movies was significantly higher in patients when compared to HCs. OXT reactivity during the control movie related to PANSS `general psychopathology’. No significant associations appeared between baseline or induced OXT levels and other PANSS subscales, attachment style or childhood adversity in patients.ConclusionsOur findings suggest differences of baseline OXT and a higher OXT reactivity toward strong emotional stimuli in patients with schizophrenia, suggesting a role of OXT as a gender- and context-dependent modulator of socio-emotional function.

Microglia senescence may promote neuropsychiatric disease. This prompted us to examine the relationship between microglia activation states and telomere biology. A panel of candidate genes associated with telomere maintenance, mitochondrial biogenesis, and cell-cycle regulation were investigated in M1- and M2-polarized microglia in vitro as well as in MACS-purified CD11b+ microglia/brain macrophages from models of stroke, Alzheimer’s disease, and chronic stress. M1 polarization, ischemia, and Alzheimer pathology elicited a strikingly similar transcriptomic profile with, in particular, reduced expression of murine Tert. Our results link classical microglia activation with repression of telomere-associated genes, suggesting a new mechanism underlying microglia dysfunction.

A growing body of evidence demonstrates that psychosocial stress is an important and often underestimated risk factor for cardiovascular disease such as myocardial infarction and stroke. In this article, we map out major biological interfaces between stress, stress-related psychiatric disorders, and stroke, placing special emphasis on the fact that stress and psychiatric disorders may be both cause and consequence of cardiovascular disease. Apart from high-risk lifestyle habits such as smoking and lack of exercise, neuroendocrine dysregulation, alterations of the hemostatic system, increased oxidative stress, and inflammatory changes have been implicated in stress-related endothelial dysfunction. Heart rate provides another useful and easily available measure that reflects the complex interplay of vascular morbidity and psychological distress. Importantly, heart rate is emerging as a valuable predictor of stroke outcome and, possibly, even a target for therapeutic intervention. Furthermore, we review recent findings highlighting the role of FK506-binding protein 51 (FKBP5), a co-chaperone of the glucocorticoid receptor, and of perturbations in telomere maintenance, as potential mediators between stress and vascular morbidity. Finally, psychiatric sequelae of cardiovascular events such as post-stroke depression or posttraumatic stress disorder are highly prevalent and may, in turn, exert far-reaching effects on recovery and outcome, quality of life, recurrent ischemic events, medication adherence, and mortality.

Endogenous oxytocin has been associated with different aspects of social cognition in healthy subjects and patients with schizophrenia. In this pilot study, we investigated the relationship between plasma oxytocin and oxytocin level changes induced by empathy-eliciting, attachment-related movie scenes with correlates of cognitive and emotional empathy in patients and healthy controls. The Multifaceted Empathy Test (MET) and the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) were administered to patients with schizophrenia (N = 35, 12 females) and healthy controls (N = 35, 12 females) to estimate dimensions of cognitive and emotional empathy. Peripheral basal oxytocin concentrations and oxytocin responses to movie-based emotional stimuli were assessed using radioimmunoassay with sample extraction. In patients, induced oxytocin level changes were inversely correlated with MET cognitive empathy regarding negative emotional states. Controlling for non-social cognition and age revealed a significant negative association between basal oxytocin levels and MET cognitive empathy for positive emotions. In healthy subjects, oxytocin reactivity was inversely correlated with the IRI subscale "fantasy". Oxytocin was not related to any measure of emotional empathy. A hyper-reactive oxytocin system might be linked to impaired cognitive empathy as a part of a dysfunctional regulative circuit of attachment-related emotions and interpersonal stressors or threats by attribution of meaning. Healthy adults with a disposition to identify with fictional characters showed lower oxytocin reactivity, possibly indicating familiarity with movie-based stimuli. The oxytocinergic system may be involved in maladaptive coping mechanisms in the framework of impaired mentalizing and associated dysfunctional responses to interpersonal challenges in schizophrenia.

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NCl3 kristallisiert rhombisch in der zentrosymmetrischen Raumgruppe Pnma. Die Elementarzelle mit den Abmessungen a = 7,48 ± 0,02, b = 9,35 ± 0,01 und c = 16,48 ± 0,02 Å enthält 12 Formeleinheiten NCl3. Die Kristallstruktur bei etwa −125°C wurde unter Verwendung von dreidimensionalen WEISSENBERG‐Filmdaten mit direkten Methoden aufgeklärt und bis zu einem R‐Wert von 9,1% verfeinert. Neben Dipol‐Dipol‐Kräften spielen schwache intermolekulare Wechselwirkungen über NCl− und ClCl−Kontakte eine Rolle beim Aufbau der Kristallstruktur aus NCl3−Molekülen. Der gemittelte NCl−Bindungsabstand beträgt 1,75 ± 0,01 Å, der mittlere Bindungswinkel ist 106,8 ± 2°.