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This article introduces the concept of ‘Sea Cities’ to emphasize a range of tactics to acknowledge the relationship between the sea and cities. This concept is critical for the possibility of integrating future aquatic-based urbanism to address climate change, and in particular, the issue of rising sea levels, which is currently faced by the majority of coastal cities. We compare and assess the tactics of four sea cities (i.e., to fortify, accommodate, release, and floating) against the case study of Jakarta. Jakarta is deemed to be among the metropolitan cities most vulnerable to sea level rise, owing to overpopulation alongside the fact that its land is sinking rapidly due to massive urban development. In order to understand the prospects and pitfalls of each tactic for Jakarta, we analyse scholarly literature on the subject, official government reports and documents, as well as policy briefs released by governments at the national level. This study finds that massive hard structural solutions are not only insufficient but also ineffective towards solving the challenges of climate change in Jakarta, especially the rising sea level. At the same time, it also identifies that while the combination of accommodating and floating tactics has never been considered as future a planning option, this could enable more resilient and adaptive solutions for the future development trajectory of Jakarta. In doing so, it could also provide important transferrable lessons for other coastal cities, especially those within developing countries.
While moving fish farms to offshore sites can be a more sustainable way to expand farmed fish production, the fish pens have to contend with a harsher environment. Thus, it is necessary to draw on offshore engineering competences for designing and analysing the offshore fish farming infrastructure. This paper reviews existing design and analysis guidance from maritime classification and national/international authorities that can be applicable for offshore fish farms. Based on the existing design guidelines, a review of design criteria for offshore fish farms under the following subtopics is provided: design life, design environmental loads, combining environmental loads, and miscellaneous load conditions. This review on the global performance analysis procedures and methods is presented based on practices used for neighbouring industries, such as offshore oil and gas and wind energy production, under the following subtopics: hydrostatic analysis, hydrodynamic analysis, and mooring system analysis with introducing theoretical background and modelling techniques. This paper also highlights limitations and cautions when using these design and analysis methods. Providing this comprehensive information, as well as commentary on their applications, will help engineers and designers to develop offshore fish farming infrastructure with confidence.
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