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Purpose -The number of gardening-based mental health interventions is increasing, yet when the literature was last reviewed in 2003, limited evidence of their effectiveness was identified. The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the current evidence-base for gardening-based mental health interventions and projects through examining their reported benefits and the quality of research in this field. Design/methodology/approach -Studies evaluating the benefits of gardening-based interventions for adults experiencing mental health difficulties were identified through an electronic database search. Information on the content and theoretical foundations of the interventions, the identified benefits of the interventions and the study methodology was extracted and synthesised. Findings -Ten papers published since 2003 met the inclusion criteria. All reported positive effects of gardening as a mental health intervention for service users, including reduced symptoms of depression and anxiety. Participants described a range of benefits across emotional, social, vocational, physical and spiritual domains. Overall the research was of a considerably higher quality than that reviewed in 2003, providing more convincing evidence in support of gardening-based interventions. However, none of the studies employed a randomised-controlled trial design. Research limitations/implications -There is a need for further high-quality research in this field. It is important that adequate outcome measures are in place to evaluate existing gardening-based mental health interventions/projects effectively. Originality/value -This paper provides an up-to-date critique of the evidence for gardening-based mental health interventions, highlighting their potential clinical value.

With benefits to both human well-being and pro-nature conservation behaviors, nature connectedness is emerging as an important psychological construct for a sustainable future. The growing research and applied and policy-related interests require a straightforward measure of nature connectedness that is suitable for both children and adult populations. To establish the reliability of the new Nature Connection Index (NCI) three factor analyses were conducted. One was based on a large Monitor of Engagement with the Natural Environment (MENE) dataset for adults (n = 3568) with a replication from data sets collected online (n = 553), and a third used MENE data from children (n = 351). To validate the NCI as a measure for nature connectedness an online comparison study (n = 153) included the NCI alongside other established measures. The results showed that the NCI was a reliable and valid scale that offers a short, simple alternative to other measures of nature connectedness, particularly for populations including both children and adults, measured face to face or online. The utility of the NCI is also supported, with variations associated with various pro-environmental and pro-conservation behaviors observed, and importantly the NCI also revealed changes in nature connectedness across the lifespan.

Using a psychometric methodology the present study explored the associations between natural environments and experiential feeling states. The effects of the frequency of participants" (N = 90) experience of the natural environment and of the location of their childhood upbringing were also investigated. Ten natural environments mapped on to an orthogonal two-component experiential structure labeled Eudemonia (ostensibly positive feelings) and Apprehension (ostensibly negative feelings). Generally, the more natural environments tended to be associated with higher eudemonia and higher apprehension, the less natural environments with both lower eudemonia and lower apprehension. In line with expectations, participants from rural childhood locations, compared with urban participants, reported less Apprehension and participants with greater experience of the natural environment, compared with participants with less experience, reported greater Eudemonia and less Apprehension. Results are discussed in relation to environmental experiences and affective psychological wellbeing.

This study was concerned with the subjective experiences of five women (N ¼ 5) on a 10-day Scottish wilderness trip focussing on well-being and environmental perceptions. Semistructured interviews, using an ethnographic approach, were subjected to interpretative phenomenological analysis (Smith, Jarman, & Osborn, 1999). The group shared common positive experiences characterized by feelings of connection, aliveness, contemplativeness, self-discovery, confidence, and well-being, although some deeper emotional experiences remained ineffable. Although participants' positive experiences were tied to an intimacy with the natural environment, others expressed an additional social influence, derived from bonds formed within the group. These findings are important for a better understanding of the effects that such wilderness experiences can have on people's psychological well-being and the development of positive people-environment relationships.

The present article is concerned with the relationships between the natural environment and identity, emotional well-being, and meaning. In a sample of university students, it was hypothesized that frequency of experience of the natural environment and the degree of meaning obtained from such experience would positively predict both well-being and environmental identity. Both hypotheses were partly supported. It was also hypothesized that participants who grew up in a rural location would report more meaning, stronger environmental identities, greater frequency of experience, and more positive well-being than would participants who grew up in urban and suburban environments. All these hypotheses were supported. The strengths and omissions of the present research and potential avenues for practical applications of the i ndings are discussed.

Recent interest in people's engagement with the natural environment has resulted in a series of empirical measures and important research findings. Two studies reported here complement this literature in producing a concise measure of connectedness to the natural environment and assessing its independent predictive impact within the structure of the theory of planned behavior. In Study 1 (n = 71), new measures of connectedness and caring were constructed; in Study 2 (n = 163), the connectedness measure was shown to be an independent predictor of people's intentions to reduce personal energy consumption levels. It is suggested that the measure of connectedness may capture some identity-related and/or affective experience that impacts (independently of more cognitive predictors) upon people's motivation in this domain.

). AbstractPurpose: The potential for 'green' interventions to promote mental wellbeing and reduce mental distress is increasingly being recognised. Preliminary evidence suggests that allotment gardening activities may have a significant effect on mental wellbeing, but a need for further research has been highlighted. This study investigated the relationships between allotment gardening, feeling connected to nature and wellbeing.Design: A mixed methods design was utilized. Measures of subjective wellbeing (quality of life), eudemonic wellbeing and connectedness to nature were administered 2 and qualitative data were collected via a cross-sectional online survey of 171 allotment gardeners in the United Kingdom.Findings: Allotment gardeners' eudemonic wellbeing and quality of life in the environmental domain were significantly higher than population means reported in the literature. Regression analysis showed that the amount of time gardeners spent on their allotment during summer predicted eudemonic wellbeing. This relationship was fully mediated by feelings of connectedness to nature. Four main themes emerged from the qualitative data: allotments provided a space of one's own, meaningful activity, increased feelings of connectedness, and improved physical and mental health. Conclusions:The results suggest that allotment gardening is associated with increased eudemonic wellbeing, but not subjective wellbeing. Furthermore, a mechanism through which allotment gardening enhances wellbeing is suggested: increased connectedness to nature. Limitations of the study and clinical and research implications are discussed.Keywords: allotment gardening, connectedness to nature, wellbeing, eudemonia. Allotment Gardening and WellbeingWith its roots within working class communities, allotments are typically small rented plots of horticultural land to grow fruits and vegetables for small scale, usually personal and family, consumption (Acton, 2011). Recently there has been a renewed interest in allotments, as people are increasingly opting for greener lifestyles (Wiltshire & Burn, 2008). A number of health and wellbeing benefits of allotment gardening have been claimed, including stress reduction, a sense of accomplishment and enjoyment (Hawkins, Mercer, Thirlaway & Clayton, 2013), and increased physical activity, relaxation and community cohesion (Hope & Ellis, 2009). However, despite the 3 growing interest in the wellbeing benefits of allotment gardening, research in this area is still in early stages.Much of the research into allotment gardening to date has been in the form of qualitative investigations of social and therapeutic horticulture for people with mental health difficulties. Fieldhouse (2003) reported participants experiences of social and therapeutic horticulture were consistent with both Kaplan's (1995) attention restoration theory (see below) and flow; a subjective psychological state accompanying absorption in an activity, characterised by self-motivation, enjoyment and feelings of self-worth and competence (Csi...