No abstract

Background: Volatile organic compounds (VOC) are end products of human metabolism (normal and disease-associated) that can be mainly excreted in breath, urine, and feces. Therefore, VOC can be very useful as markers of diseases and helpful for clinicians since its sampling is noninvasive, inexpensive, and painless. Electronic noses, or eNoses, provide an easy and inexpensive way to analyze gas samples. Thus, this device may be used for diagnosis, monitoring or phenotyping diseases according to specific breathprints (breath profile). Objective: In this review, we summarize data showing the ability of eNose to be used as a noninvasive tool to improve diagnosis in clinical settings. Methods: A PRISMA-oriented search was performed in PubMed and Cochrane Library. Only studies performed in humans and published since 2000 were included. Results: A total of 48 original articles, 21 reviews, and 7 other documents were eligible and fully analyzed. The quality assessment of the selected studies was conducted according to the Standards for Reporting of Diagnostic Accuracy. Airway obstructive diseases were the most studied and Cyranose 320 was the most used eNose. Conclusions: Several case-control studies were performed to test this technology in diverse fields. More than a half of the selected studies showed good accuracy. However, there are some limitations regarding sampling methodology, analysis, reproducibility, and external validation that need to be standardized. Additionally, it is urgent to test this technology in intend-to-treat populations. Thus, it is possible to think in the contribution of VOC analysis by eNoses in a clinical setting.

h i g h l i g h t sThe highest bacterial and fungal concentrations obtained in school and kindergartens. Occupancy and poor ventilation were associated with bacterial concentrations. Penicillium and Cladosporium were the most occurring fungi indoors. Children exhibited dose rates twice higher than adults. a b s t r a c tUntil now the influence of risk factors resulting from exposure to biological agents in indoor air has been far less studied than outdoor pollution; therefore the uncertainty of health risks, and how to effectively prevent these, remains.This study aimed (i) to quantify airborne cultivable bacterial and fungal concentrations in four different types of indoor environment as well as to identify the recovered fungi; (ii) to assess the impact of outdoor bacterial and fungal concentrations on indoor air; (iii) to investigate the influence of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), temperature and relative humidity on bacterial and fungal concentrations; and (iv) to estimate bacterial and fungal dose rate for children (3e5 years old and 8e10 years old) in comparison with the elderly.Air samples were collected in 68 homes, 9 child day-care centres, 20 primary schools and 22 elderly care centres, in a total of 264 rooms with a microbiological air sampler and using tryptic soy agar and malt extract agar culture media for bacteria and fungi growth, respectively. For each building, one outdoor representative location were identified and simultaneously studied.The results showed that child day-care centres were the indoor microenvironment with the highest median bacterial and fungal concentrations (3870 CFU/m 3 and 415 CFU/m 3 , respectively), whereas the lowest median concentrations were observed in elderly care centres (222 CFU/m 3 and 180 CFU/m 3 , respectively). Indoor bacterial concentrations were significantly higher than outdoor concentrations (p < 0.05); whereas the indoor/outdoor ratios for the obtained fungal concentrations were approximately around the unit. Indoor CO 2 levels were associated with the bacterial concentration, probably due to occupancy and insufficient ventilation. Penicillium and Cladosporium were the most frequently occurring fungi. Children's had two times higher dose rate to biological pollutants when compared to adult individuals. Thus, due to children's susceptibility, special attention should be given to educational settings in order to guarantee their healthy future development.

Many volatile organic compounds (VOC) are classified as known or possible human carcinogens, irritants, and toxicants, and VOC exposure has been associated with asthma and other respiratory symptoms/diseases. This review summarizes recent quantitative data regarding VOC in four categories of indoor environments (schools, housing, offices, and other indoor) and compares the types and concentration levels of individual VOC that were detected, measured, and reported according to season (cold and warm). The influence of outdoor air on concentrations of indoor VOC was also assessed as ratios of indoor versus outdoor. Papers published from 2000 onward were reviewed and 1383 potentially relevant studies were identified. From these, 177 were removed after duplication, 1176 were excluded for not meeting the review criteria, and 40 were included in this review. On average, higher mean concentrations of indoor VOC were found in housing environments, in offices, and in the cold season. Volatile organic compounds are commonly present in indoor air and specific compounds, and their concentrations vary among indoor environments and seasons, indicating corresponding differences in sources (indoors and outdoors). Actions and policies to reduce VOC exposures, such as improved product labeling and consumer education, are recommended.

Background: Indoor air contaminants may act as endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs). However, to what extent these contaminants affect health is poorly known.We aimed to assess the association between EDCs exposure and asthma, respiratory symptoms and obesity in schoolchildren.Methods: Data from a cross-sectional analysis of 815 participants from 20 schools in Porto, Portugal, were analysed. Symptoms were assessed, asthma was defined on lung function, and airway reversibility and body mass index (BMI) were calculated.The concentrations of 13 volatile organic compounds and 2 aldehydes identified as EDCs were measured in 71 classrooms throughout 1 week. Principal component analysis (PCA) was used to assess the effect of co-exposure. Associations were estimated by regression coefficients using linear and logistic regression models.Results: Increased individual and combined EDCs levels were found in classrooms having more children with asthma and obesity. Higher levels of hexane, styrene, cyclohexanone, butylated hydroxytoluene and 2-butoxyethanol were associated with obesity, and higher levels of cyclohexanone were associated with increased child BMI. Toluene, oxylene, m/p-xylene and ethylbenzene were significantly associated with nasal obstruction.A positive association was found between PC1 and the risk of obese asthma (OR = 1.43, 95% CI 1.01, 1.98) and between PC2 and overweight (OR = 1.51, 95% CI 1.28, 1.79).PC1 and PC2 were also associated with nasal obstruction, and PC2 was associated with breathing difficulties and lean body mass, although EDCs concentrations were low. Conclusions:Our findings further support the role of EDCs in asthma and obesity development. Moreover, even low levels of indoor exposure may influence the risk of asthma, respiratory symptoms and obesity.

a b s t r a c tChildren are by far more susceptible to the negative effects of air pollutants than adults. Building-level characteristics are structural factors largely beyond the control of those who live in them. Yet, there are gaps in understanding of the relationship of school building characteristics and/or occupant behaviour and indoor air parameters with implications for health and well-being.The aims of the study were to investigate the potential sources of CO 2 , PM 10 and volatile organic compound (VOCs) in naturally ventilated primary schools and to assess the potential health hazards of PM 10 on schoolchildren.CO 2 and PM 10 levels were determined in seventy three classrooms located in Porto city over a period of 8 h using low-drift NDIR sensors and light-scattering laser photometers, respectively. The VOCs samples were collected over 5-days in Tenax TA tubes and then analysed by gas chromatography coupled mass spectrometry.Principal component analysis revealed the influence of activities or building features as major sources of indoor CO 2 , PM 10 and VOCs associated to the reduced airing of the classrooms which underlines the influence of indoor sources, occupant behaviour and maintenance/cleaning activities in schools and the high density of occupants.The hazard quotient calculated based on the formula suggested by the United States Environmental Protection Agency is higher than the acceptable level of 1; being for children almost twelve times higher than the safe level. This indicates that the inhalation exposure to PM 10 by children and adults occupying the school environment is not negligible.

The collection and analysis of settled dust samples from indoor environments has become one of several environmental sampling methods used to assess bioburden indoors. The aim of the study was to characterize the bioburden in vacuumed settled dust from 10 Primary Health Care Centers by culture based and molecular methods. Results for bacterial load ranged from 1 to 12 CFU.g −1 of dust and Gram-negative bacteria ranged between 1 to 344 CFU.g −1 of dust. Fungal load ranged from 0 CFU.g −1 of dust to uncountable. Aspergillus section Fumigati was detected in 4 sampling sites where culture base-methods could not identify this section. Mucorales (Rhizopus sp.) was observed on 1 mg/L voriconazole. Three out of 10 settled dust samples were contaminated by mycotoxins. Settled dust sampling coupled with air sampling in a routine way might provide useful information about bioburden exposure.

No abstract