Many viruses possess complex mechanisms involving multiple gene products and cis-regulatory elements in order to achieve a fine control of their gene expression at both transcriptional and posttranscriptional levels. Hepatitis B virus (HBV) and retroviruses share many structural and functional similarities. In this study, by genetic and biochemical analyses, we have demonstrated the existence of a novel genetic element within the HBV genome which is essential for high-level expression of viral gene products. This element is located 3' to the envelope coding region. We have shown that this genetic element is cis acting at the posttranscriptional level and that its function is exerted at the level of RNA processing as part of transcribed sequences. This RNA element is also functional in the context of a heterologous gene. Similar to the function of Rev-Rev response element interaction of human immunodeficiency virus type 1, this element appears to inhibit the splicing process and facilitate the transport and utilization of HBV transcripts.

Drug-induced liver injury is a major cause of drug development failures and postmarket withdrawals. In vitro models that incorporate primary hepatocytes have been shown to be more predictive than model systems which rely on liver microsomes or hepatocellular carcinoma cell lines. Methods to phenotypically stabilize primary hepatocytes ex vivo often rely on mimicry of hepatic microenvironmental cues such as cell-cell interactions and cell-matrix interactions. In this work, we sought to incorporate phenotypically stable hepatocytes into threedimensional (3D) microtissues, which, in turn, could be deployed in drug-screening platforms such as multiwell plates and diverse organ-on-a-chip devices. We first utilize micropatterning on collagen I to specify cell-cell interactions in two-dimensions, followed by collagenase digestion to produce well-controlled aggregates for 3D encapsulation in polyethylene glycol (PEG) diacrylate. Using this approach, we examined the influence of homotypic hepatocyte interactions and composition of the encapsulating hydrogel, and achieved the maintenance of liver-specific function for over 50 days. Optimally preaggregated structures were subsequently encapsulated using a microfluidic droplet-generator to produce 3D microtissues. Interactions of engineered hepatic microtissues with drugs was characterized by flow cytometry, and yielded both induction of P450 enzymes in response to prototypic small molecules and drug-drug interactions that give rise to hepatotoxicity. Collectively, this study establishes a pipeline for the manufacturing of 3D hepatic microtissues that exhibit stabilized liver-specific functions and can be incorporated into a wide array of emerging drug development platforms.

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Hepatitis B virus (HBV) mutants unable to synthesize HBV e antigen have been described in association with fulminant hepatitis. We have cloned and sequenced the entire viral genome of an HBV strain associated with an epidemic of fulminant hepatitis. This strain contained, in addition to two G-to-A mutations in the precore region (nucleotides 1898 and 1901), numerous other mutations in conserved nucleotide positions resulting in significant amino acid substitutions in HBV gene products. We introduced either or both of the two G-to-A mutations into wild-type HBV by oligonucleotide-directed mutagenesis and generated replication-competent constructs of these mutants as well as the fulminant strain. Viral antigen synthesis, transcription, and replication were analyzed after transfection into human hepatoma cells. All viral constructs produced and secreted similar levels of envelope proteins (HBV surface antigen). Analysis of cellular lysate for core-specific immunoreactivity demonstrated a much higher level of core-associated antigens in cells transfected with the fulminant strain. While cells transfected with mutant and wild-type HBV DNAs synthesized similar levels of viral RNAs, the fulminant strain directed the synthesis of a much higher level of core-associated replicative intermediates (as well as virion particles) than the wild type and mutants with either or both of the precore mutations. Increase in the encapsidation of pregenomic RNA into core particles likely the basis for the enhanced replication associated with the fulminant strain. Our study suggests that an HBV mutant with enhanced viral replication may be important in the pathogenesis of fulminant hepatic failure, and mutations other than the precore mutations may be responsible for this variant behavior.

Little is known about prostaglandin synthesis and function in embryonic stem cells. We postulated that mouse embryonic stem (mES) cells possess enzymes to synthesize protective prostaglandins. Compared with differentiated adult cells, mES cells were less susceptible to H 2 O 2 -induced apoptosis. However, their apoptosis was enhanced by indomethacin or SC-236, a selective inhibitor of cyclooxygenase (COX)-2. Analysis of COX pathway enzymes by Western blotting revealed expression of COX-2 and cytosolic and microsomal prostaglandin E 2 (PGE 2 ) synthases. COX-1 and prostacyclin (PGI 2 ) synthases were undetectable. mES cells produced PGE 2 but not PGI 2 . Importantly, PGE 2 rescued mES cells from apoptosis. To elucidate the signaling mechanism by which PGE 2 inhibits apoptosis, we analyzed E-type prostaglandin (EP) receptors by Western blots. All EP isoforms were detected except EP4. Butaprost, a specific EP2 agonist, rescued mES cells from apoptosis, whereas sulprostone, an EP1/EP3 agonist, had no effect, suggesting selective interaction of PGE 2 with EP2. The antiapoptotic effect of PGE 2 was abrogated by Ly-294002 or wortmannin but not H-89 or a specific inhibitor of protein kinase A, suggesting signaling via phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase (PI-3K). Akt was constitutively active in mES cells, which were inhibited by indomethacin and rescued by PGE 2 . The rescuing effect of PGE 2 was abrogated by Ly-294002. These results indicate that mES cells constitutively express COX-2 and PGE synthases and produce PGE 2 , which confers resistance to apoptosis via EP2-mediated activation of PI-3K to the Akt pathway.

Although the biological importance of hepatitis B virus X protein (HBX) in the life cycle of hepatitis B virus has been well established, the cellular and molecular basis of its function remains largely undefined. Despite the association of multiple activities with HBX, none of them appear to provide a unifying hypothesis regarding the true biological function of HBX. Identification and characterization of cellular targets of HBX remain an essential goal in the elucidation of the molecular mechanisms of HBX. Using the Saccharomyces cerevisiae two-hybrid system, we have identified and characterized a novel subunit of the proteasome complex (XAPC7) that interacts specifically with HBX. We also showed that HBX binds specifically to XAPC7 in vitro. Mutagenesis studies have defined the domains of interaction to be critical for the function of HBX. Furthermore, overexpression of XAPC7 appeared to activate transcription by itself and antisense expression of XAPC7 was able to block transactivation by HBX. Therefore, the proteasome complex is possibly a functional target of HBX in cells.

We examined the effects of isoform-specific histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors on β-catenin posttranslational modifications in neural progenitor cells (NPCs) derived from human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs). β-catenin is a multifunctional protein with important roles in the developing and adult central nervous system. Activation of the Wnt pathway results in stabilization and nuclear translocation of β-catenin, resulting in activation of multiple target genes. In addition, β-catenin forms a complex with cadherins at the plasma membrane as part of the adherens junctions. The N-terminus of β-catenin has phosphorylation, ubiquitination, and acetylation sites that regulate its stability and signaling. In the absence of a Wnt signal, Ser33, Ser37, and Thr41 are constitutively phosphorylated by glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK3β). β-Catenin phosphorylated at these sites is recognized by β-transducin repeat-containing protein (βTrCP), which results in ubiquitination and degradation by the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway. The N-terminal regulatory domain of β-catenin also includes Ser45, a phosphorylation site for Casein Kinase 1α (CK1α) and Lys49, which is acetylated by the acetyltransferase p300/CBP-associated factor (PCAF). The relevance of Lys49 acetylation and Ser45 phosphorylation to the function of β-catenin is an active area of investigation. We find that HDAC6 inhibitors increase Lys49 acetylation and Ser45 phosphorylation but do not affect Ser33, Ser37, and Thr41 phosphorylation. Lys49 acetylation results in decreased ubiquitination of β-catenin in the presence of proteasome inhibition. While increased Lys49 acetylation does not affect total levels of β-catenin, it results in increased membrane localization of β-catenin.

The recombinant protective antigen (rPA) of Bacillus anthracis is a promising anthrax vaccine. We compared serum immunoglobulin G levels and toxin-neutralizing antibody titers in rabbits following delivery of various doses of vaccine by microneedle-based intradermal (i.d.) delivery or intramuscular (i.m.) injection using conventional needles. Intradermal delivery required less antigen to induce levels of antibody similar to those produced via i.m. injection during the first 2 weeks following primary and booster inoculation. This dosesparing effect was less evident at the later stages of the immune response. Rabbits immunized i.d. with 10 g of rPA displayed 100% protection from aerosol spore challenge, while i.m. injection of the same dose provided slightly lower protection (71%). Groups immunized with lower antigen doses were partially protected (13 to 29%) regardless of the mode of administration. Overall, our results suggest rPA formulated with aluminum adjuvant and administered to the skin by a microneedle-based device is as efficacious as i.m. vaccination.In the autumn of 2001, anthrax spores were intentionally released through the U.S. mail. This bioterror attack resulted in 11 cases of cutaneous anthrax and 11 cases of inhalational anthrax, 5 of which were fatal (7, 9). There has been an unprecedented level of public and private support for the development of new means of preventing and treating anthrax during the years following these attacks. Although antibiotics are nearly 100% effective in treating the cutaneous form of the disease, the case fatality rate for inhalational anthrax was estimated to be 75% or higher, even in the presence of supportive care and postexposure antibiotic treatment (information found at the CDC website [http://www.bt.cdc.gov/agent/anthrax /faq/signs.asp]). A recombinant form of the Bacillus anthracis protective antigen (rPA) is a candidate for replacement of Anthrax Vaccine Adsorbed (BioThrax), the currently licensed anthrax vaccine. Proposed applications of the rPA vaccine include prophylactic vaccination as well as therapeutic postexposure use in combination with antibiotics (5). Numerous preclinical studies have demonstrated that the rPA vaccine can provide complete protection against lethal inhalational anthrax (4, 8,11,13,14,18,23). Results of phase I clinical trials suggest that the vaccine is safe and immunogenic following intramuscular (i.m.) injection in humans (6).Most licensed and new vaccines under clinical development, including rPA, are administered by i.m. or subcutaneous injection using conventional needles and syringes. However, recent studies demonstrate that vaccine delivery to the skin can increase the magnitude of the immune response and, in some cases, do so using less vaccine than required with i.m. injection (1,2,10,12,(18)(19)(20)22). For example, clinical studies evaluating intradermal (i.d.) delivery of influenza vaccine have suggested that dose sparing relative to i.m. administration can be achieved (1, 10). Although conventional needles can be used...