In seeking greater sustainability in water resources management, wastewater is now being considered more as a resource than as a waste-a resource for water, for plant nutrients, and for energy. Energy, the primary focus of this article, can be obtained from wastewater's organic as well as from its thermal content. Also, using wastewater's nitrogen and P nutrients for plant fertilization, rather than wasting them, helps offset the high energy cost of producing synthetic fertilizers. Microbial fuel cells offer potential for direct biological conversion of wastewater's organic materials into electricity, although significant improvements are needed for this process to be competitive with anaerobic biological conversion of wastewater organics into biogas, a renewable fuel used in electricity generation. Newer membrane processes coupled with complete anaerobic treatment of wastewater offer the potential for wastewater treatment to become a net generator of energy, rather than the large energy consumer that it is today.

Anaerobic membrane bioreactors have potential for energy-efficient treatment of domestic and other wastewaters, membrane fouling being a major hurdle to application. It was found that fouling can be controlled if membranes are placed directly in contact with the granular activated carbon (GAC) in an anaerobic fluidized bed bioreactor (AFMBR) used here for post-treatment of effluent from another anaerobic reactor treating dilute wastewater. A 120-d continuous-feed evaluation was conducted using this two-stage anaerobic treatment system operated at 35 °C and fed a synthetic wastewater with chemical oxygen demand (COD) averaging 513 mg/L. The first-stage was a similar fluidized-bed bioreactor without membranes (AFBR), operated at 2.0-2.8 h hydraulic retention time (HRT), and was followed by the above AFMBR, operating at 2.2 h HRT. Successful membrane cleaning was practiced twice. After the second cleaning and membrane flux set at 10 L/m(2)/h, transmembrane pressure increased linearly from 0.075 to only 0.1 bar during the final 40 d of operation. COD removals were 88% and 87% in the respective reactors and 99% overall, with permeate COD of 7 ± 4 mg/L. Total energy required for fluidization for both reactors combined was 0.058 kWh/m(3), which could be satisfied by using only 30% of the gaseous methane energy produced. That of the AFMBR alone was 0.028 kWh/m(3), which is significantly less than reported for other submerged membrane bioreactors with gas sparging for fouling control.

No abstract

In the United States anthropogenic activities are mainly responsible for the wide spread perchlorate contamination of drinking water, surface water, groundwater, and soil. Even at microgram levels, perchlorate causes toxicity to flora and fauna and affects growth, metabolism and reproduction in humans and animals. Reports of antithyroid effects of perchlorate and its detection in common food items have raised serious public health concerns, leading to extensive decontamination efforts in recent years. Several physico-chemical removal and biological decontamination processes are being developed. Although promising, ion exchange is a non-selective and incomplete process as it merely transfers perchlorate from water to the resin. The perchlorate-laden spent resins (perchlorate 200-500 mg L(-1)) require regeneration resulting in production of concentrated brine (6-12% NaCl) or caustic waste streams. On the contrary, biological reduction completely degrades perchlorate into O(2) and innocuous Cl(-). High reduction potential of ClO(4)(-)/Cl(-) (E° =∼ 1.28 V) and ClO(3)(-)/Cl(-) pairs (E° =1.03 V) makes these contaminants thermodynamically ideal e(-) acceptors for microbial reduction. In recent years unique dissimilatory perchlorate reducing bacteria have been isolated and detailed studies pertaining to their microbiological, biochemical, genetics and phylogenetic aspects have been undertaken which is the subject of this review article while the various physico-chemical removal and biological reduction processes have been reviewed by others.

No abstract

No abstract

No abstract

In spite of ongoing annual vaccination programs, the seasonal influenza epidemics remain a major cause of high morbidity and mortality. The currently used "inactivated" vaccines provide very short-term and highly specific humoral immunity due to the frequent antigenic variations in the influenza virion. These intra-muscularly administered vaccines also fail to induce protective mucosal immunity at the portal of viral entry and destruction of the virally infected cells by induction of cytotoxic T lymphocytes. Therefore, it is necessary to develop immunologically superior vaccines. This article highlights some of the recent developments in investigational influenza vaccines. The most notable recent developments of interest include the use of immunopotentiators, development of DNA vaccines, use of reverse genetics, and the feasibility of mammalian cell-based production processes. Presently, due to their safety and efficacy, the cold-adapted "live attenuated" vaccines are seen as viable alternatives to the "inactivated vaccines". The DNA vaccines are gaining importance due to the induction of broad-spectrum immunity. In addition, recent advances in recombinant technologies have shown the possibility of constructing pre-made libraries of vaccine strains, so that adequately preparations can be made for epidemics and pandemics.