There are two mechanisms of damage after spinal cord injury (SCI): a primary mechanical injury and a secondary injury mediated by multiple processes after the initial trauma. The outcomes of SCI depend mainly on the extent of secondary damage produced by a series of cellular and molecular events, such as inflammation, free radical production, and glutamate (Glu) excitotoxicity, which inevitably induce neuronal and glial cell death at and beyond the site of injury. To date, there is no effective treatment for SCI; therefore, developing novel therapeutic strategies for SCI is highly prioritized.Ginkgo biloba extract (EGb761) is a complex mixture of ingredients with broad pharmacological effects on the CNS. Recent studies on SCI revealed that EGb761 was involved in protection of spinal cord neurons in ischemic injury (Mechirova et al. 2009) AbstractGinkgo biloba extract (EGb761) has been shown to be neuroprotective; however, the mechanism by which EGb761 mediates neuroprotection remains unclear. We hypothesized that the neuroprotective effect of EGb761 is mediated by inhibition of cytosolic phospholipase A 2 (cPLA 2 ), an enzyme that is known to play a key role in mediating secondary pathogenesis after acute spinal cord injury (SCI). To determine whether EGb761 neuroprotection involves the cPLA 2 pathway, we first investigated the effect of glutamate and hydrogen peroxide on cPLA 2 activation. Results showed that both insults induced an increase in the expression of phosphorylated cPLA 2 (p-cPLA 2 ), a marker of cPLA 2 activation, and neuronal death in vitro. Such effects were significantly reversed by EGb761 administration. Additionally, EGb761 significantly decreased prostaglandin E 2 (PGE 2 ) release, a downstream metabolite of cPLA 2 . Moreover, inhibition of cPLA 2 activity with arachidonyl trifluromethyl ketone improved neuroprotection against glutamate and hydrogen peroxideinduced neuronal death, and reversed Bcl-2/Bax ratio; notably, EGb761 produced greater effects than arachidonyl trifluromethyl ketone. Finally, we showed that the extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 signaling pathway is involved in EGb761's modulation of cPLA 2 phosphorylation. These results collectively suggest that the protective effect of EGb761 is mediated, at least in part, through inhibition of cPLA 2 activation, and that the extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 signaling pathway may play an important role in mediating the EGb761's effect.
Considering the growing acceptance of humanoid robots in the service industry, this study aimed to examine their negative impact on service evaluation, as well as the underlying mechanism of perceived effort and the moderating role of consumer mindset. Three experiments that used different service scenarios revealed that humanoid service robots negatively affected service evaluation compared to human employees, and this effect was mediated by decreased perceived effort. Furthermore, this negative impact was attenuated when consumers had a concrete mindset compared to abstract. This work contributes to both consumer service and robot literature by elaborating on the possible adverse influence of replacing human employees with humanoid service robots. It also offers managerial implications for how and when to adopt a robot service in this machine age.
The current research demonstrates that larger (vs. smaller) food images on food packages can positively influence consumers' initial product attitudes toward the food (i.e., purchase likelihood). Three studies examine the predictions. Compared with smaller food images, larger ones improve purchase likelihood (Studies 1 and 2). The effect is mediated by mental imagery (Study 2). However, this effect is only observed for vice (vs. virtue) foods (Study 3). Investigating the impact of the food image size on food packages has rarely been explored, but as food packages are likely one of the first stimuli that consumers notice about food on store shelves, its role on initial product attitudes warrants investigation. We discuss how our findings can offer insights into rising obesity rates, thus calling for regulation of food image size on packages amongst policy officials. We discuss the limitations of our work and also offer questions for future research on food consumption, health, and policy.
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