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Separating urine from domestic wastewater promotes a more sustainable municipal wastewater treatment system. This study investigated the feasibility of applying a forward osmosis (FO) dewatering process for nutrient recovery from source-separated urine under different conditions, using seawater or desalination brine as a low-cost draw solution. The filtration process with the active layer facing feed solution exhibited relatively high water fluxes up to 20 L/m(2)-h. The process also revealed relatively low rejection to neutral organic nitrogen (urea-N) in fresh urine but improved rejection of ammonium (50-80%) in hydrolyzed urine and high rejection (>90%) of phosphate, potassium in most cases. Compared to simulation based on the solution-diffusion mechanism, higher water flux and solute flux were obtained using fresh or hydrolyzed urine as the feed, which was attributed to the intensive forward nutrient permeation (i.e., of urea, ammonium, and potassium). Membrane fouling could be avoided by prior removal of the spontaneously precipitated crystals in urine. Compared to other urine treatment options, the current process was cost-effective and environmentally friendly for nutrient recovery from urban wastewater at source, yet a comprehensive life-cycle impact assessment might be needed to evaluate and optimize the overall system performance at pilot and full scale operation.

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BACKGROUND: The air stripping process has been widely used to treat wastewater to prevent undesirable substances from impairing the quality of water sources. This study aimed to investigate the operational and economic aspects of air stripping for ammonia recovery from source separated human urine.

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A new air exchange rate (AER) monitoring method using continuous CO 2 sensors was developed and validated through both laboratory experiments and field studies. Controlled laboratory simulation tests were conducted in a 1-m 3 environmental chamber at different AERs (0.1-10.0 hr −1 ). AERs were determined using the decay method based on box model assumptions. Field tests were conducted in classrooms, dormitories, meeting rooms and apartments during 2-5 weekdays using CO 2 sensors coupled with data loggers. Indoor temperature, relative humidity (RH), and CO 2 concentrations were continuously monitored while outdoor parameters combined with on-site climate conditions were recorded. Statistical results indicated that good laboratory performance was achieved: duplicate precision was within 10%, and the measured AERs were 90%-120% of the real AERs. Average AERs were 1.22, 1.37, 1.10, 1.91 and 0.73 hr −1 in dormitories, air-conditioned classrooms, classrooms with an air circulation cooling system, reading rooms, and meeting rooms, respectively. In an elderly particulate matter exposure study, all the homes had AER values ranging from 0.29 to 3.46 hr −1 in fall, and 0.12 to 1.39 hr −1 in winter with a median AER of 1.15.

Source-separating urine from other domestic wastewaters promotes a more sustainable municipal wastewater treatment system. This study investigated the feasibility and potential issues of applying a urine source-separation system in tropical urban settings. The results showed that source-separated urine underwent rapid urea-hydrolysis (ureolysis) at temperatures between 34-40 o C, stale/fresh urine ratios greater than 40%, and/or with slight fecal cross-contamination. Undiluted (or low-diluted) urine favored ureolysis; this can be monitored by measuring conductivity as a reliable and efficient indicator. The optimized parameters demonstrated that an effective urine source-separation system is achievable in tropical urban areas. On the other hand, the initial release of CO 2 and NH 3 led to an elevated pressure in the headspace of the collection reservoir, which then dropped to a negative value, primarily due to oxygen depletion by the microbial activity in the gradually alkalized urine. Another potential odor source during the ureolysis process was derived from the high production of volatile fatty acids (VFA), which were mainly acetic, propanoic, and butyric acids. Health concerns related to odor issues might limit the application of source separation systems in urban areas; it is therefore vital to systematically monitor and control the odor emissions from a source separation system. As such, an enhanced ureolysis process can attenuate the odor emissions.Implications: Urine source separation is promising to improve the management of domestic wastewater in a more sustainable way. The work demonstrates the achievability of an effective urine source-separation system in tropical urban areas. The installation of urine-stabilization tanks beneath high-rise buildings lowers the risk of pipe clogging. Conductivity measurement can be utilized as a reliable process indicator for an automated system. However, urine hydrolysis raises a strong potential of odor emission (both inorganic and organic), which might limit the application of source separation systems in urban areas. An enhanced ureolysis process could shorten and attenuate the odor emissions.