This study investigated the variation in oligosaccharide levels in the breast milk of south Chinese mothers in a prolonged breastfeeding period of up to 400 days postpartum. A total of 488 breast milk samples were collected from 335 healthy mothers at five different time points: 0–5 days, 10–15 days, 40–45 days, 200–240 days, and 300–400 days postpartum. A high-performance anion-exchange chromatography-pulsed amperometric detector (HPAEC-PAD) was used to quantify 2′-fucosyllactose (2′-FL), 3-fucosyllactose (3-FL), lacto-N-tetraose (LNT), lacto-N-neotetraose (LNnT), 3′-sialyllactose (3′-SL) and 6′-sialyllactose (6′-SL). In this study, we found six oligosaccharides that were present in breast milk from 0 to 400 days postpartum. The median value ranges of individual oligosaccharide components in this study were 1013–2891 mg/L 2′-FL, 193–1421 mg/L 3-FL, 314–1478 mg/L LNT, 44–255 mg/L LNnT, 111–241 mg/L 3′-SL, and 23–602 mg/L6′-SL. HMO levels decreased over the lactation periods, except for 3-FL, which increased throughout lactation. The predominant fucosylated and sialylated HMOs were 2′-FL and 6′-SL at 40–45 days postpartum and changed to 3-FL and 3′-SL at 200–240 days postpartum. Results from this study showed that lactating women continue to provide their offspring with a high level of 2′-FL one year after delivery, suggesting that 2′-FL may play an important role for infants in early life. Our findings also provide further evidence in support of breastfeeding after one-year postpartum.
The imbalance of reactive oxygen species is the main cause in aging, accompanied by oxidative stress. As the most abundant in human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs), 2′-Fucosyllactose (2′-FL) has been confirmed to have great properties in immunity regulation and anti-inflammatory. The research on 2′-FL is focused on infants currently, while there is no related report of 2′-FL for the elderly. A d-galactose-induced accelerated aging model was established to explore the protective effect of 2′-FL on the intestines and brain in mice. In this study, 2′-FL significantly reduced oxidative stress damage and inflammation in the intestines of aging mice, potentially by regulating the sirtuin1 (SIRT1)-related and nuclear factor E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) pathways. In addition, 2′-FL significantly improved the gut mucosal barrier function and increased the content of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) in the intestine. The gut microbiota analysis indicated that 2′-FL mainly increased the abundance of probiotics like Akkermansia in aging mice. Moreover, 2′-FL significantly inhibited apoptosis in the brains of aging mice, also increasing the expression of SIRT1. These findings provided a basis for learning the benefits of 2′-FL in the aging process.
HMOs (human milk oligosaccharides) are the third most important nutrient in breast milk. As complex glycans, HMOs play an important role in regulating neonatal intestinal immunity, resisting viral and bacterial infections, displaying antiinflammatory characteristics, and promoting brain development. Although there have been some previous reports of HMOs, a detailed literature review summarizing the structure−activity relationships and dose-dependent effects of HMOs is lacking. Hence, after introducing the structures and synthetic pathways of HMOs, this review summarizes and categorizes identified structure− function relationships of HMOs. Differential mechanisms of different structural HMOs utilization by microorganisms are summarized. This review also emphasizes the recent advances in the interactions between different health benefits and the variance of dosage effect based on in vitro cell tests, animal experiments, and human intervention studies. The potential relationships between the chemical structure, the dosage selection, and the physiological properties of HMOs as functional foods are vital for further understanding of HMOs and their future applications.
The effects of frying process on the nutritional property, physicochemical quality, and in vitro digestibility of instant noodle products are investigated in this study. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) and Fourier transform infrared spectrometer (FT-IR) were also used to explore the changes in the microstructure and protein transformation. Noodles, after the frying process, showed a lower proportion of carbohydrate, protein, fiber, and also total starch and digestible starch, but higher content of fat and resistant starch in the proximate analysis. The frying process was also considered to improve the texture, surface color, and sensory properties of instant noodle products, accompanied by better cooking quality, including shorter cooking time and lower cooking loss during the rehydration. The honeycomb-like, porous, and less uniformed structure, and also the higher levels of β-sheets and β-turns, and the lower proportion of α-helixes of protein structure from fried instant noodle was also observed. The in vitro digestibility of starch and protein were downregulated in the fried group (81.96% and 81.31, respectively, on average) compared with the non-fried group (97.58% and 88.78, respectively, on average). Thus, the frying process lowered the glycemic index and regulated protein secondary structure by inhibiting continuous digesting enzyme activity, generating starch-lipid complexes, and changing the levels of protein transformation. In conclusion, our findings will provide an innovative evaluation of the frying process on instant noodles and even other various starch-based prepared food products.
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