One of the oldest ideas in invasion biology, known as Darwin's naturalization hypothesis, suggests that introduced species are more successful in communities in which their close relatives are absent. We conducted the first experimental test of this hypothesis in laboratory bacterial communities varying in phylogenetic relatedness between resident and invading species with and without a protist bacterivore. As predicted, invasion success increased with phylogenetic distance between the invading and the resident bacterial species in both the presence and the absence of protistan bacterivory. The frequency of successful invader establishment was best explained by average phylogenetic distance between the invader and all resident species, possibly indicating limitation by the availability of the unexploited niche (i.e., organic substances in the medium capable of supporting the invader growth); invader abundance was best explained by phylogenetic distance between the invader and its nearest resident relative, possibly indicating limitation by the availability of the unexploited optimal niche (i.e., the subset of organic substances supporting the best invader growth). These results were largely driven by one resident bacterium (a subspecies of Serratia marcescens) posting the strongest resistance to the alien bacterium (another subspecies of S. marcescens). Overall, our findings support phylogenetic relatedness as a useful predictor of species invasion success.

Darwin's naturalization hypothesis (DNH), which predicts that alien species more distantly related to native communities are more likely to naturalize, has received much recent attention. The mixed findings from empirical studies that have tested DNH, however, seem to defy generalizations. Using meta-analysis to synthesize results of existing studies, we show that the predictive power of DNH depends on both the invasion stage and the spatial scale of the studies. Alien species more closely related to natives tended to be less successful at the local scale, supporting DNH; invasion success, however, was unaffected by alien-native relatedness at the regional scale. On the other hand, alien species with stronger impacts on native communities tended to be more closely related to natives at the local scale, but less closely related to natives at the regional scale. These patterns are generally consistent across different ecosystems, taxa and investigation methods. Our results revealed the different effects of invader-native relatedness on invader success and impact, suggesting the operation of different mechanisms across invasion stages and spatial scales.

Numerous studies have demonstrated that plant species diversity enhances ecosystem functioning in terrestrial ecosystems, including diversity effects on insect arthropods (herbivores, predators and parasitoids) and plants. Yet, the effects of increased plant diversity across trophic levels in different ecosystems and biomes have not yet been explored on a global scale. Through a global meta-analysis of 2914 observations from 351 studies, we found that increased plant species richness reduced herbivore abundance and damage but increased predator and parasitoid abundance, predation, parasitism, and overall plant performance. Moreover, increased predator/parasitoid performance was correlated with reduced herbivore abundance and enhanced plant performance. We

Species immigration history can structure ecological communities through priority effects, which are often mediated by competition. As competition tends to be stronger between species with more similar niches, we hypothesize that species phylogenetic relatedness, under niche conservatism, may be a reasonable surrogate of niche similarity between species, and thus influence the strength of priority effects. We tested this hypothesis using a laboratory microcosm experiment in which we established bacterial species pools with different levels of phylogenetic relatedness and manipulated the immigration history of species from each pool into microcosms. Our results showed that strong priority effects, and hence multiple community states, only emerged for the species pool with the greatest phylogenetic relatedness. Community assembly also resulted in a significant positive relationship between bacterial phylogenetic diversity and ecosystem functions. Interestingly, these results emerged despite a lack of phylogenetic conservatism for most of the bacterial functional traits considered. Our results highlight the utility of phylogenetic information for understanding the structure and functioning of ecological communities, even when phylogenetically conserved functional traits are not identified or measured.

There is increasing awareness of invasion in microbial communities worldwide, but the mechanisms behind microbial invasions remain poorly understood. Specifically, we know little about how the evolutionary and ecological differences between invaders and natives regulate invasion success and impact. Darwin’s naturalization hypothesis suggests that the phylogenetic distance between invaders and natives could be a useful predictor of invasion, and modern coexistence theory proposes that invader-native niche and fitness differences combine to determine invasion outcome. However, the relative importance of phylogenetic distance, niche difference and fitness difference for microbial invasions has rarely been examined. By using laboratory bacterial microcosms as model systems, we experimentally assessed the roles of these differences for the success of bacterial invaders and their impact on native bacterial community structure. We found that the phylogenetic distance between invaders and natives failed to explain invasion success and impact for two of three invaders at the phylogenetic scale considered. Further, we found that invasion success was better explained by invader-native niche differences than relative fitness differences for all three invaders, whereas invasion impact was better explained by invader-native relative fitness differences than niche differences. These findings highlight the utility of considering modern coexistence theory to gain a more mechanistic understanding of microbial invasions.

Anthropogenic environmental changes, such as nitrogen (N) enrichment and alteration in precipitation regimes, significantly influence ecosystems world‐wide. However, we know little about whether and how these changes alter the phylogenetic properties of ecological communities. Based on a 7‐year field experiment in the temperate semi‐arid steppe of Inner Mongolia, China, we investigated the influence of increased N and precipitation on plant phylogenetic structure and phylogenetic patterns of species colonization and extinction. Our study demonstrated that N and water addition influenced different aspects of plant community structure. Water addition increased plant species richness by preventing species extinction and facilitating species colonization, without altering community phylogenetic structure. In contrast, N addition did not alter species richness, but promoted the colonization of species distantly related to the residents, changing community phylogenetic structure from being neutral to overdispersion. We also found evidence for abundance‐based extinction where rarer species were at greater risk of extinction, and functional trait‐based species extinction where shorter statured plants and shallower rooted plants were at greater risk of extinction. Synthesis. Our study provides the first experimental evidence that plant phylogenetic community structure responds differently to different aspects of global changes. Importantly, the colonization of non‐resident species, rather than the extinction of resident species, contributed predominantly to changes in plant community phylogenetic structure in response to N amendment. Our findings highlight the importance of considering species phylogenetic relationships for a more complete understanding of anthropogenic influences on ecological communities.

Summary Plants form complex interaction networks with diverse microbiomes in the environment, and the intricate interplay between plants and their associated microbiomes can greatly influence ecosystem processes and functions. The phyllosphere, the aerial part of the plant, provides a unique habitat for diverse microbes, and in return the phyllosphere microbiome greatly affects plant performance. As an open system, the phyllosphere is subjected to environmental perturbations, including global change, which will impact the crosstalk between plants and their microbiomes. In this review, we aim to provide a synthesis of current knowledge of the complex interactions between plants and the phyllosphere microbiome under global changes and to identify future priority areas of research on this topic.

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