Intercropping, which grows at least two crop species on the same pieces of land at the same time, can increase grain yields greatly. Legume-grass intercrops are known to overyield because of legume nitrogen fixation. However, many agricultural soils are deficient in phosphorus. Here we show that a new mechanism of overyielding, in which phosphorus mobilized by one crop species increases the growth of a second crop species grown in alternate rows, led to large yield increases on phosphorus-deficient soils. In 4 years of field experiments, maize (Zea mays L.) overyielded by 43% and faba bean (Vicia faba L.) overyielded by 26% when intercropped on a low-phosphorus but high-nitrogen soil. We found that overyielding of maize was attributable to belowground interactions between faba bean and maize in another field experiment. Intercropping with faba bean improved maize grain yield significantly and above-ground biomass marginally significantly, compared with maize grown with wheat, at lower rates of P fertilizer application (<75 kg of P2O5 per hectare), and not significantly at high rate of P application (>112.5 kg of P2O5 per hectare). By using permeable and impermeable root barriers, we found that maize overyielding resulted from its uptake of phosphorus mobilized by the acidification of the rhizosphere via faba bean root release of organic acids and protons. Faba bean overyielded because its growth season and rooting depth differed from maize. The large increase in yields from intercropping on lowphosphorus soils is likely to be especially important on heavily weathered soils.intercropping ͉ interspecific rhizosphere effect ͉ overyielding I ntercropping, which is the intermingled growth of two or more crops, with Ͼ28 million hectares of annually sown area in China (1), is also common in other parts of the world, such as in India, Southeast Asia, Latin America, and Africa (2). On nitrogen-deficient soils, legume-grass intercrops are known to overyield because of legume nitrogen fixation (2-5). About a third of terrestrial soils have insufficient available phosphorus (P) for optimum crop production, with many tropical acid soils being highly P-deficient (6, 7). Some pot experiments have suggested that legume/cereal mixtures can achieve greater P uptake on such soils (8-10) than can either species by itself. In field conditions, similar greater P uptake by intercropped maize with faba bean also was observed (11). However, both pot experiments and field experiments did not distinguish that the greater P uptake was derived from niche (rooting depth or seasonality) complementary or direct interspecific facilitation. We hypothesize that overyielding of intercropped species on P-deficient soil may result from a plant's chemical alteration of the rhizosphere that mobilizes P and thus enhances its own productivity and that of another species. We call this phenomenon the interspecific rhizosphere effect. Such chemical mobilization of a limiting nutrient would represent a mechanism of interspecific facilitation that, in concer...

Even though ecologists and agronomists have considered the spatial root distribution of plants to be important for interspecific interactions in natural and agricultural ecosystems, few experimental studies have quantified patterns of root distribution dynamics and their impacts on interspecific interactions. A field experiment was conducted to investigate the relationship between root distribution and interspecific interactions between intercropped plants. Roots were sampled twice by auger and twice by the monolith method in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)/maize (Zea mays L.) and faba bean (Vicia faba L.)/maize intercropping and in sole wheat, maize, and faba bean up to 100 cm depth in the soil profile. The results showed that the roots of intercropped wheat spread under maize plants, and had much greater root length density (RLD) at all soil depths than sole wheat. The roots of maize intercropped with wheat were limited laterally, but had a greater RLD than sole-cropped maize. The RLD of maize intercropped with faba bean at different soil depths was influenced by intercropping to a smaller extent compared to maize intercropped with wheat. Faba bean had a relatively shallow root distribution, and the roots of intercropped maize spread underneath them. The results support the hypotheses that the overyielding of species showing benefit in the asymmetric interspecific facilitation results from greater lateral deployment of roots and increased RLD, and that compatibility of the spatial root distribution of intercropped species contributes to symmetric interspecific facilitation in the faba bean/maize intercropping.

Intercropping, the simultaneous cultivation of multiple crop species in a single field, increases aboveground productivity due to species complementarity. We hypothesized that intercrops may have greater belowground productivity than sole crops, and sequester more soil carbon over time due to greater input of root litter. Here, we demonstrate a divergence in soil organic carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) content over 7 years in a field experiment that compared rotational strip intercrop systems and ordinary crop rotations. Soil organic C content in the top 20 cm was 4% ± 1% greater in intercrops than in sole crops, indicating a difference in C sequestration rate between intercrop and sole crop systems of 184 ± 86 kg C ha(-1) yr(-1). Soil organic N content in the top 20 cm was 11% ± 1% greater in intercrops than in sole crops, indicating a difference in N sequestration rate between intercrop and sole crop systems of 45 ± 10 kg N ha(-1) yr(-1). Total root biomass in intercrops was on average 23% greater than the average root biomass in sole crops, providing a possible mechanism for the observed divergence in soil C sequestration between sole crop and intercrop systems. A lowering of the soil δ(15) N signature suggested that increased biological N fixation and/or reduced gaseous N losses contributed to the increases in soil N in intercrop rotations with faba bean. Increases in soil N in wheat/maize intercrop pointed to contributions from a broader suite of mechanisms for N retention, e.g., complementary N uptake strategies of the intercropped plant species. Our results indicate that soil C sequestration potential of strip intercropping is similar in magnitude to that of currently recommended management practises to conserve organic matter in soil. Intercropping can contribute to multiple agroecosystem services by increased yield, better soil quality and soil C sequestration.

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A field experiment was carried out to quantify biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) using the 15 N isotope natural abundance method in maize (Zea mays L.)/faba bean (Vicia faba L.) and wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)/faba bean intercropping systems. Faba bean was yielding more in the maize/faba bean intercropping, but not in the wheat/faba bean intercropping. Biomass, grain yield and N acquisition of faba bean were significantly increased when intercropped with maize, and decreased significantly with wheat, irrespective of N-fertilizer application, indicating that the legume could gain or lose productivity in an intercropping situation. There was yield advantage of maize/faba bean intercropping, but no in wheat/faba bean intercropping. The grain yield of the faba bean intercropped with maize was greater than that of faba bean monoculture due to increases of the stems per plant and the pods per stem of faba bean. N fertilization inhibited N fixation of faba bean in maize/faba bean and wheat/faba bean intercropping and faba bean monoculture. The responses of different cropping systems to N-fertilizer application, however, were not identical, with competitive intercropping (wheat/faba bean) being more sensitive than facilitative intercropping (maize/faba bean). Intercropping increased the percentage of N derived from air (%Ndfa) of the wheat/faba bean system, but not that of the maize/faba bean system when no N fertilizer was applied. When receiving 120 kg N/ha, however, intercropping did not significantly increase %Ndfa either in the wheat/faba bean system or in the maize/faba bean system in comparison with faba bean in monoculture. The amount of shoot N derived from air (Ndfa), however, increased significantly when intercropped with maize, irrespective of N-fertilizer application. Ndfa decreased when intercropped with wheat, albeit not significantly at 120 kg N/ha. Ndfa was correlated more closely with dry matter yield, grain yield and competitive ratio, than with %Ndfa. This indicates that that total dry matter yield (sink strength), not %Ndfa, was more critical for the legume to increase Ndfa. The results suggested that N fixation could be improved by yield maximization in an intercropping system.

Symbiotic nitrogen fixation is commonly inhibited by N fertilization in intensive farming systems. We hypothesized that intercropping alleviates the inhibitory effect of N fertilization on nodulation and N 2 fixation of legumes. Two years of field experiments (2006)(2007) with different Nfertilizer rates (0, 75, 150, 225, 300 kg N ha −1 ) were carried out to test the hypothesis in a faba bean (Vicia faba L.)/maize (Zea mays L.) intercropping system in the north-western part of China. The results show that both the nodule biomass and nitrogen derived from the atmosphere (Ndfa) in intercropped faba bean were increased by 7-58% and 8-33% at the start of flowering, 8-72% and 54-61% at peak flowering, 4-73% and 18-50% at grain filling, and 7-62% and −7-72% at maturity, respectively, compared with sole faba bean. Intercropping with maize significantly alleviated the inhibitory effect of N fertilization on nodulation and N 2 fixation, and improved the productivity of intercropping.

Interspecific interactions and soil nitrogen supply levels affect intercropping productivity. We hypothesized that interspecific competition can be alleviated by increasing N application rate and yield advantage can be obtained in competitive systems. A field experiment was conducted in Wuwei, Gansu province in 2007 and 2008 to study intercropping of faba bean/maize, wheat/maize, barley/maize and the corresponding monocultures of faba bean (Vicia faba L.), wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) and maize (Zea mays L.) with N application rates of 0, 75, 150, 225 and 300 kg N ha −1 . Total land equivalent ratios (TLER) were 1.22 for faba bean/maize, 1.16 for wheat/maize, and 1.13 for barley/maize intercropping over the 2-year study period. Maize was overyielding when intercropped with faba bean, but underyielding when intercropped with wheat or barley according to partial land equivalent ratios (PLER) based on grain yields of individual crops in intercropping and sole cropping. There was an interspecific facilitation between intercropped faba bean and maize, and interspecific competition between maize and either wheat or barley. The underyielding of maize was higher when intercropped with barley than with wheat. Fertilizer N alleviated competitive interactions in intercrops with adequate fertilizer N at 225 kg ha −1 . Yield advantage of intercropping can be acquired with adequate nitrogen supply, even in an intensive competitive system such as barley/maize intercropping. This is important when using intercropping to develop intensive farming systems with high inputs and high outputs.