1. Wind turbines and power lines can cause bird mortality due to collision or electrocution. The biodiversity impacts of energy infrastructure (EI) can be minimised through effective landscape-scale planning and mitigation. The identification of high-vulnerability areas is urgently needed to assess potential cumulative impacts of EI while supporting the transition to zero carbon energy.2. We collected GPS location data from 1,454 birds from 27 species susceptible to collision within Europe and North Africa and identified areas where tracked birds are most at risk of colliding with existing EI. Sensitivity to EI development was estimated for wind turbines and power lines by calculating the proportion of GPS flight locations at heights where birds were at risk of collision and accounting for species' specific susceptibility to collision. We mapped the maximum collision sensitivity value obtained across all species, in each 5 × 5 km grid cell, across Europe and North Africa. Vulnerability to collision was obtained by overlaying the sensitivity surfaces with density of wind turbines and transmission power lines.3. Results: Exposure to risk varied across the 27 species, with some species flying consistently at heights where they risk collision. For areas with sufficient tracking data within Europe and North Africa, 13.6% of the area was classified as high sensitivity to wind turbines and 9.4% was classified as high sensitivity to transmission power lines. Sensitive areas were concentrated within important migratory corridors and along coastlines. Hotspots of vulnerability to collision with wind turbines and transmission power lines (2018 data) were scattered across the study region with highest concentrations occurring in central Europe, near the strait of Gibraltar and the Bosporus in Turkey. Synthesis and applications.We identify the areas of Europe and North Africa that are most sensitive for the specific populations of birds for which sufficient GPS tracking data at high spatial resolution were available. We also map vulnerability hotspots where mitigation at existing EI should be prioritised to reduce collision risks. As tracking data availability improves our method could be applied to more species and areas to help reduce bird-EI conflicts.
1. Information provided by tracking studies using satellite telemetry is providing ecologists with invaluable new insights into animal behaviour and movement strategies. Here we describe a new type of GPS (global positioning system) tracking device which makes use of a growing network of LoRaWAN (long range, low power wide area network) gateways. These tags have the potential to be a low weight and power consumption solution. 2. We characterise the GPS accuracy and data transmission range, including uplinks and downlinks, for the tracker using a series of standardised tests. Data transmission range was tested by visiting locations with line of sight to the LoRa gateway at distances up to 75km and recording whether data transmission was completed successfully from each location. These tests were complemented by a trial deployment of six devices on Griffon Vultures Gyps fulvus. 3. These LoRa tags reliably provided accurate GPS location estimates, particularly on shorter location acquisition cycles. At one-minute intervals the GPS location bias was 4.71m in the horizontal plane and 5m in the vertical plane while GPS precision, measured by standard deviation, was 3.9m in horizontal space and 7.7m in vertical space. GPS locations were less accurate on a longer acquisition cycle but still comparable with other commercially available tags. Ground based range tests revealed reliable transmission of multiple data payloads was recorded from a maximum distance of 40.7km. Initial results from a deployment on Griffon Vultures Gyps fulvus yielded useful information about flight speeds, height and transmission range during the first two weeks after tag deployment. 4. The LoRa tags demonstrated potential for effective use in the study of animal movement. The small size and power needs allows for flexibility in which combination of battery, solar panel, and housing they are paired with meaning that fully assembled tags can weigh less than 5g. The LoRaWAN gateway network does not yet allow global coverage, hence at present, this solution is best suited to the study of colonial species, where gateways can be installed on site, or species with consistent migration routes.
Abstract1. Information provided by tracking studies using remote telemetry is providing ecologists with invaluable new insights into animal behaviour and movement strategies. Here we describe a new type of GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System) tracking device currently under development and nearing commercialisation, which transmits data via LoRaWAN (long range wide area network) gateways. These tags have the potential to be a low weight and power consumption solution for tracking the movement of animals at high resolution. 2. We characterise the position accuracy and data transmission range, including uplinks and downlinks, for the tracker using a series of ground-based field tests. Data transmission range was tested by visiting locations with line of sight to the LoRaWAN Gateway at distances up to 75 km and recording whether data transmission was completed successfully from each location. These tests were complemented by a trial deployment of six devices on griffon vultures Gyps fulvus. 3. These LoRa tags reliably provided accurate position estimates, particularly on more frequent acquisition cycles. At 1-min intervals the GNSS location bias was 4.71 m in the horizontal plane and 5 m in the vertical plane while precision, measured by standard deviation, was 3.9 m in horizontal space and 7.7 m in vertical space. Ground-based range tests confirmed data transmission from a maximum distance of 40.7 km. Initial results from a deployment on griffon vultures yielded useful information about flight speeds, altitude, and transmission range (up to 53.4 km). 4. With consistent GNSS position accuracy and the ability to transmit data over tens of kilometres, the LoRa tags demonstrated potential for monitoring animal movement over large areas. The small size and power needs of the device allow for flexibility in which combination of battery, solar panel, and housing they are paired with. The tags can be assembled in housing formats ranging in size from less than 5 g for deployment on Kestrel sized birds to 80 g for deployment on large birds such as vultures. The devices are particularly suitable for philopatric (site-faithful) species because LoRa gateways can be installed near breeding sites to maximise opportunities for data transmission. Our findings are informative for studies seeking to use LoRa for tracking birds and other animals using the miro-Nomad or a different type of GPS-LoRa logger.
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