Abstract. This review proposes an integrative contextual and developmental approach to religious identity development and acculturative adaptation among adolescents with an immigrant background. Relevant research with minority adolescents has addressed three main research questions: (1) What is distinctive about religious identity development in (Muslim) minority youth? (2) How does religious identity relate to their acculturative adaptation? and (3) What is the role of interpersonal and intercultural relations in specific acculturation contexts? In line with multiple developmental pathways in specific acculturation contexts, Muslim youth in Europe showed either stability or an increase in religious identification throughout adolescence, yet religious identity development varied greatly across religious communities and receiving societies. In support of the adaptive function of identity development in acculturating youth, (2) the religious identity of Muslim adolescents contributed positively to their psychological adaptation through the commitment to heritage culture values and identities; and it was either unrelated or conflicting with mainstream culture adoption and sociocultural adaptation, depending on specific acculturation contexts. Finally, religious identities reflect the bicultural social world of minority adolescents: strong and stable religious identities were premised on religious transmission in interpersonal relations with immigrant parents and minority peers. Moreover, religious identity conflict or compatibility with mainstream cultural values and identities was contingent on intercultural relations: perceived discrimination and Islamophobia fuel identity conflict in Muslim youth, whereas more harmonious intercultural relations enable compatible and adaptive pathways of religious identity.

This study aimed to relate school diversity approaches to continuity and change in teacher-student relationships, comparing Belgian-majority (N = 1,875, M age = 14.56) and Turkish and Moroccan-minority adolescents (N = 1,445, M age = 15.07). Latent-Growth-Mixture-Models of student-reported teacher support and rejection over 3 years revealed three trajectories per group: normative-positive (high support, low rejection) and decreasing-negative (moderate support, high-decreasing rejection) for both groups, increasing-negative (moderate support, low-increasing rejection) for minority, moderate-positive (moderate support, low rejection) for majority youth. Trajectories differed between age groups. Student and teacher perceptions of equality and multiculturalism afforded, and assimilationism threatened, normative-positive trajectories for minority youth. Diversity approaches had less impact on majority trajectories. Normative-positive trajectories were related to improved school outcomes; they were less likely, but more beneficial for minority than majority youth.

Minority and majority acculturation orientations (i.e., their preferences for minorities) show consistent intergroup asymmetries: Minority adolescents see heritage and mainstream culture orientations as compatible (i.e., positively correlated), whereas majority adolescents see them as conflicting (i.e., negatively correlated). It remains unclear (a) how minority and majority adolescents' compatible versus conflicting acculturation patterns evolve over time; and (b) how peer acculturation norms in school affect evolving individual acculturation patterns. Multi-level autoregressive cross-lagged panel models with Turkish-/Moroccan-minority (N = 1147, Mage = 15.60) and Belgian-majority (N = 1716; Mage = 15.08) adolescents in the same schools (N = 69) revealed that mainstream and heritage culture orientations were partially compatible over time for minorities, yet conflicting for majority adolescents. Moreover, peer acculturation norms predicted individual acculturation orientations longitudinally, in line with existing asymmetric acculturation patterns across minority and majority adolescents. Highlights• Minorities' mainstream and heritage culture orientations are compatible over time.• Majorities' mainstream and heritage culture orientations are conflicting over time.• Peer norms reinforce existing asymmetric acculturation patterns over time.• Compatible peer acculturation patterns for minorities depend on minority presence.

Tracing developmental pathways of immigrant-origin adolescents, this 3-year longitudinal study (2012)(2013)(2014)(2015) examined within-person changes in cultural orientations and their consequences for school adjustment. Multivariate latent growth mixture modeling confirmed multiple pathways of integration, revealing variable acculturative changes along dual trajectories of heritage and mainstream orientations among European-origin (N = 592, M age = 14.45, 55.1% boys) and Turkish-and Moroccan-origin adolescents (N = 1269, M age = 14.70, 53.1% boys). Two trajectories for European-origin adolescents differed in heritage orientations (high decreasing and low increasing); for Turkish-and Moroccan-origin adolescents, three trajectories differed in mainstream orientations (high stable, low increasing, and high decreasing). Acculturative change affected aspects of later school adjustment: European-origin adolescents in high heritage orientation trajectories reported more belonging and emotional engagement; Turkish-and Moroccan-origin adolescents in high mainstream orientation trajectories reported more behavioral engagement.

Higher parent-child relationship quality has been associated with less internalizing and externalizing problem behavior. However, it remained less clear whether these associations are universal or depend on the country under investigation. Furthermore, fathers are still understudied, even though there is increasing evidence of their important role in early adolescent development. Our study compared the association of mother-child as well as father-child relationship quality with early adolescents' problem behavior in four culturally different countries, namely Hungary (N = 293; M age = 11.22; 53% boys), the Netherlands (N = 242; M age = 11.20; 48% boys), India (N = 230; M age = 10.68; 61% boys), and Iceland (N = 261; M age = 10.90; 53% boys). Early adolescents filled out questionnaires in their classroom, assessing warmth and conflict with fathers and mothers and internalizing and externalizing problem behavior. Stepwise multi-group path analysis demonstrated no cross-cultural differences in associations between quality of the parent-child relationship and problem behavior. We did not find any effects of maternal or paternal warmth. However, across samples conflict with mothers was associated with more internalizing and externalizing problem behavior, and conflict with fathers was associated with more externalizing problem behavior. Our findings highlight the need to target conflict with both fathers and mothers in interventions across different countries, especially when addressing externalizing problem behavior.