Summary Modulation of intracellular chloride concentration ([Cl−]i) plays a fundamental role in cell volume regulation and neuronal response to GABA. Cl− exit via K-Cl cotransporters (KCCs) is a major determinant of [Cl−]I; however, mechanisms governing KCC activities are poorly understood. We identified two sites in KCC3 that are rapidly dephosphorylated in hypotonic conditions in cultured cells and human red blood cells in parallel with increased transport activity. Alanine substitutions at these sites result in constitutively active cotransport. These sites are highly phosphorylated in plasma membrane KCC3 in isotonic conditions, suggesting that dephosphorylation increases KCC3's intrinsic transport activity. Reduction of WNK1 expression via RNA interference reduces phosphorylation at these sites. Homologous sites are phosphorylated in all human KCCs. KCC2 is partially phosphorylated in neonatal mouse brain and dephosphorylated in parallel with KCC2 activation. These findings provide insight into regulation of [Cl−]i and have implications for control of cell volume and neuronal function.

Like many behaviors, Caenorhabditis elegans egg laying alternates between inactive and active states. To understand how the underlying neural circuit turns the behavior on and off, we optically recorded circuit activity in behaving animals while manipulating circuit function using mutations, optogenetics, and drugs. In the active state, the circuit shows rhythmic activity phased with the body bends of locomotion. The serotonergic HSN command neurons initiate the active state, but accumulation of unlaid eggs also promotes the active state independent of the HSNs. The cholinergic VC motor neurons slow locomotion during egg-laying muscle contraction and egg release. The uv1 neuroendocrine cells mechanically sense passage of eggs through the vulva and release tyramine to inhibit egg laying, in part via the LGC-55 tyramine-gated Cl- channel on the HSNs. Our results identify discrete signals that entrain or detach the circuit from the locomotion central pattern generator to produce active and inactive states.DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.21126.001

SUMMARY The mitochondrial uniporter (MCU) is an ion channel that mediates Ca2+ uptake into the matrix to regulate metabolism, cell death and cytoplasmic Ca2+ signaling. Matrix Ca2+ concentration is similar to that in cytoplasm, despite an enormous driving force for entry, but the mechanisms that prevent mitochondrial Ca2+ overload are unclear. Here, we show that MCU channel activity is governed by matrix Ca2+ concentration through EMRE. Deletion or charge neutralization of its matrix-localized acidic carboxyl terminus abolishes matrix Ca2+ inhibition of MCU Ca2+ currents, resulting in MCU channel activation, enhanced mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake and constitutively elevated matrix Ca2+ concentration. EMRE-dependent regulation of MCU channel activity requires intermembrane space-localized MICU1, MICU2 and cytoplasmic Ca2+. Thus, mitochondria are protected from Ca2+ depletion and Ca2+ overload by a unique molecular complex that involves Ca2+ sensors on both sides of the inner mitochondrial membrane, coupled through EMRE.

Binding of sweet, umami, and bitter tastants to G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) in apical membranes of type II taste bud cells (TBCs) triggers action potentials that activate a voltage-gated nonselective ion channel to release ATP to gustatory nerves mediating taste perception. Although calcium homeostasis modulator 1 (CALHM1) is necessary for ATP release, the molecular identification of the channel complex that provides the conductive ATP-release mechanism suitable for action potential-dependent neurotransmission remains to be determined. Here we show that CALHM3 interacts with CALHM1 as a pore-forming subunit in a CALHM1/CALHM3 hexameric channel, endowing it with fast voltage-activated gating identical to that of the ATP-release channel in vivo. Calhm3 is co-expressed with Calhm1 exclusively in type II TBCs, and its genetic deletion abolishes taste-evoked ATP release from taste buds and GPCR-mediated taste perception. Thus, CALHM3, together with CALHM1, is essential to form the fast voltage-gated ATP-release channel in type II TBCs required for GPCR-mediated tastes.

Summary Modulation of intracellular chloride concentration ([Cl−] i ) plays a fundamental role in cell volume regulation and neuronal response to GABA. Cl − exit via K-Cl cotransporters (KCCs) is a major determinant of [Cl − ] I ; however, mechanisms governing KCC activities are poorly understood. We identified two sites in KCC3 that are rapidly dephosphorylated in hypotonic conditions in cultured cells and human red blood cells in parallel with increased transport activity. Alanine substitutions at these sites result in constitutively active cotransport. These sites are highly phosphorylated in plasma membrane KCC3 in isotonic conditions, suggesting that dephosphorylation increases KCC3's intrinsic transport activity. Reduction of WNK1 expression via RNA interference reduces phosphorylation at these sites. Homologous sites are phosphorylated in all human KCCs. KCC2 is partially phosphorylated in neonatal mouse brain and dephosphorylated in parallel with KCC2 activation. These findings provide insight into regulation of [Cl − ] i and have implications for control of cell volume and neuronal function.

Chloride influx through GABA-gated chloride channels, the primary mechanism by which neural activity is inhibited in the adult mammalian brain, depends on chloride gradients established by the potassium chloride cotransporter KCC2. We used a genetic screen to identify genes important for inhibition of the hermaphrodite-specific motor neurons (HSNs) that stimulate Caenorhabditis elegans egg-laying behavior and discovered mutations in a potassium chloride cotransporter, kcc-2. Functional analysis indicates that, like mammalian KCCs, C. elegans KCC-2 transports chloride, is activated by hypotonic conditions, and is inhibited by the loop diuretic furosemide. KCC-2 appears to establish chloride gradients required for the inhibitory effects of GABA-gated and serotonin-gated chloride channels on C. elegans behavior. In the absence of KCC-2, chloride gradients appear to be altered in neurons and muscles such that normally inhibitory signals become excitatory. kcc-2 is transcriptionally upregulated in the HSN neurons during synapse development. Loss of KCC-2 produces a decrease in the synaptic vesicle population within mature HSN synapses, which apparently compensates for a lack of HSN inhibition, resulting in normal egg-laying behavior. Thus, KCC-2 coordinates the development of inhibitory neurotransmission with synapse maturation to produce mature neural circuits with appropriate activity levels.

To analyze mechanisms that modulate serotonin signaling, we investigated how Caenorhabditis elegans regulates the function of serotonergic motor neurons that stimulate egg-laying behavior. Egg laying is inhibited by the G protein Ga o and activated by the G protein Ga q . We found that Ga o and Ga q act directly in the serotonergic HSN motor neurons to control egg laying. There, the G proteins had opposing effects on transcription of the tryptophan hydroxylase gene tph-1, which encodes the rate-limiting enzyme for serotonin biosynthesis. Antiserotonin staining confirmed that Ga o and Ga q antagonistically affect serotonin levels. Altering tph-1 gene dosage showed that small changes in tph-1 expression were sufficient to affect egglaying behavior. Epistasis experiments showed that signaling through the G proteins has additional tph-1-independent effects. Our results indicate that (1) serotonin signaling is regulated by modulating serotonin biosynthesis and (2) Ga o and Ga q act in the same neurons to have opposing effects on behavior, in part, by antagonistically regulating transcription of specific genes. Ga o and Ga q have opposing effects on many behaviors in addition to egg laying and may generally act, as they do in the egg-laying system, to integrate multiple signals and consequently set levels of transcription of genes that affect neurotransmitter release.

Background: Na-K-Cl cotransporters (NKCCs) are essential in chloride homeostasis and salt transport. Results: Mutations in NKCC1 transmembrane domain 3 (TM3) alter transport activity, ion binding, and inhibitor affinities. Conclusion: This demonstrates a role for TM3 in the NKCC1 transport pathway. Significance: This is the beginning of a systematic analysis of the Na-K-Cl cotransporter function in the context of structural models.