Gonadal steroids are potent regulators of adult neurogenesis. We previously reported that androgens, such as testosterone (T) and dihydrotestosterone (DHT), but not estradiol, increased the survival of new neurons in the dentate gyrus of the male rat. These results suggest androgens regulate hippocampal neurogenesis via the androgen receptor (AR). To test this supposition, we examined the role of ARs in hippocampal neurogenesis using 2 different approaches. In experiment 1, we examined neurogenesis in male rats insensitive to androgens due to a naturally occurring mutation in the gene encoding the AR (termed testicular feminization mutation) compared with wild-type males. In experiment 2, we injected the AR antagonist, flutamide, into castrated male rats and compared neurogenesis levels in the dentate gyrus of DHT and oil-treated controls. In experiment 1, chronic T increased hippocampal neurogenesis in wild-type males but not in androgen-insensitive testicular feminization mutation males. In experiment 2, DHT increased hippocampal neurogenesis via cell survival, an effect that was blocked by concurrent treatment with flutamide. DHT, however, did not affect cell proliferation. Interestingly, cells expressing doublecortin, a marker of immature neurons, did not colabel with ARs in the dentate gyrus, but ARs were robustly expressed in other regions of the hippocampus. Together these studies provide complementary evidence that androgens regulate adult neurogenesis in the hippocampus via the AR but at a site other than the dentate gyrus. Understanding where in the brain androgens act to increase the survival of new neurons in the adult brain may have implications for neurodegenerative disorders.

We have previously shown that oxidized low-density lipoproteins (oxLDLs) act synergistically with β-glycerophosphate to induce the osteogenic differentiation of primary bovine aortic smooth muscle cells (BASMCs). In the present study, we attempt to resolve the mechanism responsible for this effect by examining the expression of several osteoblast-specific transcription factors. Thus, by culturing BASMCs in the absence or presence of β-glycerophosphate and/or oxLDL, we demonstrate that β-glycerophosphate induces both Runx2 and Osterix (Osx) expression. In contrast, oxLDL has no effect on Runx2 expression but rather it enhances β-glycerophosphate-induced osteoblast differentiation by further up-regulating Osx expression. In an attempt to elucidate the mechanism responsible for this latter effect, we examined the ability of oxLDL to affect Msh homeobox 2 (Msx2) expression. Similar to its effect on Osx expression, oxLDL was found to synergistically enhance β-glycerophosphate-induced Msx2 expression in an extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1 and 2 (Erk 1 and 2)-dependent manner. Furthermore, oxLDL's ability to enhance both β-glycerophosphate-induced Osx expression and alkaline phosphatase activity was prevented when the BASMCs were first transfected with Msx2-specific siRNA. Taken together, these findings suggest a plausible mechanism by which oxLDL may promote osteoblast differentiation and vascular calcification in vivo.

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The central nervous system of most animals is bilaterally symmetrical. Closer observation often reveals some functional or anatomical left-right asymmetries. In the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, the most obvious asymmetry in the nervous system is found in the ventral nerve cord (VNC), where most axons are in the right axon tract. The asymmetry is established when axons entering the VNC from the brain switch from the left to the right side at the anterior end of the VNC. In genetic screens we identified several mutations compromising VNC asymmetry. This includes alleles of col-99 (encoding a transmembrane collagen), unc-52/perlecan and unc-34 (encoding the actin modulator Enabled/Vasodilator-stimulated phosphoproteins). In addition, we evaluated mutants in known axon guidance pathways for asymmetry defects and used genetic interaction studies to place the genes into genetic pathways. In total we identified four different pathways contributing to the establishment of VNC asymmetry, represented by UNC-6/netrin, SAX-3/Robo, COL-99, and EPI-1/laminin. The combined inactivation of these pathways in triple and quadruple mutants leads to highly penetrant VNC asymmetry defects, suggesting these pathways are important contributors to the establishment of VNC asymmetry in C. elegans.