SUMMARY Regulatory T (Treg) cells suppress immune responses to a broad range of non-microbial and microbial antigens and indirectly limit immune inflammation-in-flicted tissue damage by employing multiple mechanisms of suppression. Here, we demonstrate that selective Treg cell deficiency in amphiregulin leads to severe acute lung damage and decreased blood oxygen concentration during influenza virus infection without any measureable alterations in Treg cell suppressor function, antiviral immune responses, or viral load. This tissue repair modality is mobilized in Treg cells in response to inflammatory mediator IL-18 or alarmin IL-33, but not by TCR signaling that is required for suppressor function. These results suggest that, during infectious lung injury, Treg cells have a major direct and non-redundant role in tissue repair and maintenance—distinct from their role in suppression of immune responses and inflammation—and that these two essential Treg cell functions are invoked by separable cues.

Subcapsular sinus (SCS) macrophages capture antigens from lymph and present them intact for B cell encounter and follicular delivery. However, the properties of SCS macrophages are poorly defined. Here we show SCS macrophage development depended on lymphotoxin-α1β2 and the cells had low lysosomal enzyme expression and retained opsonized antigens on their surface. Intravital imaging revealed immune complexes moving along macrophage processes into the follicle. Moreover, non-cognate B cells relayed antigen opsonized by newly produced antibodies from the subcapsular sinus to the germinal center and affinity maturation was impaired when this transport process was disrupted. Thus, we characterize SCS macrophages as specialized antigen-presenting cells functioning at the apex of an antigen transport chain that promotes humoral immunity.

Germinal center (GC) B cell-like diffuse large B cell lymphoma (GCB-DLBCL) is a common malignancy yet the signaling pathways deregulated and the factors leading to its systemic dissemination are poorly defined1,2. Work in mice showed that sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor-2 (S1PR2), a Gα12 and Gα13 coupled receptor, promotes growth regulation and local confinement of GC B cells3,4. Recent GCB-DLBCL deep sequencing studies have revealed mutations in a large number of genes in this cancer, including in GNA13 (encoding Gα13) and S1PR25-7. Here we show using in vitro and in vivo assays that GCB-DLBCL associated mutations occurring in S1PR2 frequently disrupt the receptor's Akt and migration inhibitory functions. Gα13-deficient mouse GC B cells and human GCB-DLBCL cells were unable to suppress pAkt and migration in response to S1P, and Gα13-deficient mice developed GC B cell-derived lymphoma. GC B cells, unlike most lymphocytes, are tightly confined in lymphoid organs and do not recirculate. Remarkably, deficiency in Gα13, but not S1PR2, led to GC B cell dissemination into lymph and blood. GCB-DLBCL cell lines frequently carried mutations in the Gα13 effector ARHGEF1, and Arhgef1-deficiency also led to GC B cell dissemination. The incomplete phenocopy of Gα13- and S1PR2-deficiency led us to discover that P2RY8, an orphan receptor that is mutated in GCB-DLBCL and another GC B cell-derived malignancy, Burkitt lymphoma (BL), also represses GC B cell growth and promotes confinement via Gα13. These findings identify a Gα13-dependent pathway that exerts dual actions in suppressing growth and blocking dissemination of GC B cells that is frequently disrupted in GC B cell-derived lymphoma.

Sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor-2 (S1P2)-deficient mice develop diffuse large B cell lymphoma. However, the role of S1P2 in normal germinal center (GC) physiology is unknown. Here we show that S1P2-deficient GC B cells outgrow their wild-type counterparts in chronically-established GCs. We find that S1P2-, G12–G13- and p115RhoGEF-mediated antagonism of Akt regulates cell viability and is required for growth control in chronically proliferating GCs. We also find that S1P2 inhibits GC B cell responses to follicular chemoattractants and helps confine cells to the GC. Moreover, S1P2 overexpression promotes centering of activated B cells within the follicle. We suggest that by inhibiting Akt activation and migration, S1P2 helps restrict GC B cell survival and localization to an S1P-low niche at the follicle center.

Selective ablation of follicular dendritic cells in mice results in disorganization of primary follicles and dispersal of B cells out of splenic germinal centers.

Laidlaw et al. show that Ephrin-B1 is a specific marker of mature germinal center (GC) B cells. Use of Ephrin-B1 allows for the identification of phenotypically distinct GC B cell subsets, including a population that may represent memory precursor B cells.

S1PR2 and CXCR5 cooperatively regulate localization of Tfh cells in GCs to support GC responses.

Summary Germinal centers (GCs) are sites of rapid B-cell proliferation and somatic mutation. These ovoid structures develop within the center of follicles and grow to a stereotypic size. The cell migration and interaction dynamics underlying GC B-cell selection events are currently under intense scrutiny. In recent work, we identified a role for a migration inhibitory receptor, S1PR2, in promoting GC B-cell confinement to GCs. S1PR2 also dampens Akt activation and deficiency in S1PR2 or components of its signaling pathway result in a loss of growth control in chronically stimulated mucosal GCs. Here we detail present understanding of S1PR2 and S1P biology as it pertains to GC B cells and place this information in the context of a current model of GC function.