Great Spotted and Syrian Woodpeckers (Dendrocopos major and D. syriacus) are known to hybridize in nature; however, the extent of this phenomenon is not known due to difficulties in hybrid detection based on plumage analyses. Here, we tested five markers (one mitochondrial and four nuclear) and a set of six microsatellite loci for the identification of these two Woodpeckers and their hybrids. Sequencing of DNA from 26 individuals of both Woodpeckers from different parts of their ranges: one allopatric (D. major; Norway) and two sympatric (Poland and Bulgaria) showed that both species can be clearly separated based on all sequence markers. The highest number of fixed nucleotide sites were found in the mtDNA control region and intron 5 of the transforming growth factor. Analyses of microsatellite data distinguished the two species, but all loci showed a large number of common alleles and their utility in identifying hybrids is therefore doubtful. According to the DNA sequence analyses, 2 out of 18 specimens within the sympatric range in Poland were identified as possible hybrids, most probably paternal backcrosses. Moreover, both hybrids are from synantropic populations (settled in cities), whereas none of the D. major sampled in forests and in its allopatric range (Norway) showed signs of an intermixed genotype. Further research on hybridization and introgression in woodpeckers is undoubtedly needed and could be useful for understanding ecological and ethological interactions among these species, particularly for D. syriacus, which is relatively rare in Europe.

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In the springs of 2015-2017, the population size and nest characteristics of the Eastern Rock Nuthatch (Sitta tephronota) were investigated. The study was conducted in a 400 hectare area of the mountainous region of southwestern Iran. In 2016, the population of the Eastern Rock Nuthatch was estimated at 33 pairs and its density was 8.25 breeding pairs per 100 ha of the study area. During the study, 45 nuthatch nests were investigated, of which 15 (33%) were found in cliffs and 28 (62%) were located in tree holes; 2% were built in house and bridge walls. The height of the nest was 214.3±112.3 cm above ground level. The mean of the horizontal and vertical depths of the nest chambers in trees was 17.8±3.7 and 12.6±3.2 cm respectively, and statistically differed from those in rocky nests (respectively 23.9±5.5 and 10.8±4.6 cm). However, chamber volumes did not statistically differ between these two nest type categories. The inner entrance areas of rocky nests were significantly smaller than those located in tree holes (respectively 11.1±2.3 and 15.3±5.5 cm 2). Our findings suggest that differences in nest characteristics may be an adaptation of the Eastern Rock Nuthatch to predation.

Syrian Woodpecker nests were studied in a 305-km 2 area of the agricultural landscape in SE Poland. The median egg-laying date was found to be 12 May and the median fledging date was 20 June (the earliest laying date was April 24 and the latest fledging date was July 25). Females laid from two to seven eggs (median 5.0 eggs, n = 56). An average of 4.4 young hatched per nest (SD = 1.18, median 5, maximum 6, n = 41) after 9-13 days of incubation (median 10 days, n = 37). Two to six nestlings left successful nests (median 4, n = 37) after 24-30 days (median 27, n = 36), with a mean of 2.8 (SD = 2.24, median 3, n = 56) young fledging per nest. The main reason for the loss of young observed in 31 % of the Syrian Woodpecker broods was nest parasitism by starlings. These results suggest that the process and dynamics of the range expansion of the Syrian Woodpecker are influenced by a higher reproductive output of Syrian Woodpeckers at the extremities of its range as compared to that of the rest of the Syrian Woodpecker population. April; spätestes Ausflugdatum 25. Juli). Die Weibchen legten zwischen 2 und 7 Eiern (Median 5 Eier, n = 56). Nach 9-13 Tagen Brüten (Median 10 Tage, n = 37) schlüpften bis zu sechs Jungvögel, mit einem Durchschnitt von 4.4 Jungen pro Nest (SD = 1.18, Median 5, n = 41). Nach 24-30 Tagen (Median 27, n = 36) im Nest, flogen 2 bis 6 Jungtiere aus dem Nest einer erfolgreichen Brut aus (Median 4, n = 37), mit einem Durchschnitt von 2.8 (SD = 2.24, Median 3, n = 56) insgesamt. Der Hauptgrund für Brutverluste, der bei 31 % der Bruten des Blutspechts gefunden wurde, war Nestparasitismus durch Stare. Die Ergebnisse deuten darauf hin, dass der Prozess und die Dynamik der Ausbreitung des Blutspechts beeinflusst wird durch eine höhere Reproduktionsrate der Population an den äußersten Rändern des Verbreitungsgebiets im Vergleich zur Population im Zentrum. Keywords

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