This study investigates possible relationships among motivational and learning variables (interest, self-efficacy and self-regulation) and three types of student engagement (behavioural engagement, emotional engagement and cognitive engagement) in a distance education setting. Participants were 203 students enrolled in online classes in the fall semester of 2008 in the Schools of Gerontology and Engineering at a large research university in the south-western USA, who completed an online survey assessing their levels of situational interest, computer self-efficacy, self-regulation and engagement in distance education. Situational interest and self-regulation were found to be significantly correlated with three types of engagement (behavioural, emotional and cognitive), while computer self-efficacy did not appear to be associated with any of those engagement variables. Results suggested that online activities and tools such as multimedia and discussion boards may increase emotional engagement in online learning, although they do not necessarily increase behavioural or cognitive engagement, that educators should identify students who are taking online courses for the first time and provide necessary technical help to increase their emotional engagement, and that it is important for educators to offer students strategies for increasing their self-regulation in distance education environments. IntroductionDistance education technology allows students to take advantage of the convenience and flexibility of taking classes at the times and locations they prefer. Although distance education is convenient and can potentially employ rich multimedia materials, there are unresolved issues related to students' engagement in the learning process. In contrast to the environment in traditional educational settings, distance education instructors and peers are not physically present in a classroom, so students may lack opportunities to interact, collaborate and receive feedback and social support, thus leading to less engagement in learning activities (Tuckman, 2007). Moreover, distance education provides students much more freedom in how and when they interact, and therefore, their ability to regulate their own learning seems to be critical. Given the potential limitations associated with limited supervision, monitoring of student progress and opportunities to provide feedback to students, it would be useful for distance

Phylogenetic networks model the evolutionary history of sets of organisms when events such as hybrid speciation and horizontal gene transfer occur. In spite of their widely acknowledged importance in evolutionary biology, phylogenetic networks have so far been studied mostly for specific data sets. We present a general definition of phylogenetic networks in terms of directed acyclic graphs (DAGs) and a set of conditions. Further, we distinguish between model networks and reconstructible ones and characterize the effect of extinction and taxon sampling on the reconstructibility of the network. Simulation studies are a standard technique for assessing the performance of phylogenetic methods. A main step in such studies entails quantifying the topological error between the model and inferred phylogenies. While many measures of tree topological accuracy have been proposed, none exist for phylogenetic networks. Previously, we proposed the first such measure, which applied only to a restricted class of networks. In this paper, we extend that measure to apply to all networks, and prove that it is a metric on the space of phylogenetic networks. Our results allow for the systematic study of existing network methods, and for the design of new accurate ones.

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The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of the flipped classroom approach to OpenCourseWare instruction on students' self-regulation. OpenCourseWare was integrated into the flipped classroom model (experimental group) and distance learning (control group). Overall, 181 freshmen taking a physics course were allowed to choose their own class based on their preferred teaching method (experimental or control group). The findings indicated that there was no significant between-group difference in terms of self-regulation. However, when comparing the means for the six categories of self-regulation, the results showed that the experimental group learners had significantly higher scores for the category of help-seeking. The use of the flipped classroom model created a learning environment which prompted its learners to proactively seek external help. These learners were more aware of their need for external help in their studies and were able to identify the person/people who could solve their academic problems, while they were able to find the appropriate means to do so and actually obtain help. The results of this study can serve as a reference for future studies on the flipped classroom model and OpenCourseWare, as well as for teachers and researchers in related fields.

Advances in technology have led to continuous innovation in teaching and learning methods. For instance, the use of tablet PCs (TPCs) in classroom instruction has been shown to be effective in attracting and motivating students' interest and increasing their desire to participate in learning activities. In this paper, we used a TPCs gamean iPad app called Motion Math: Hungry Fish -to help young students learn to theoretically understand and practically implement the mathematical concepts of addition and subtraction. Based on findings from a pilot study, we categorized the game's 18 levels of difficulty into "challenging" (experimental group) and "matching" (control group) games. We aimed to investigate whether challenging games were more able than matching games to improve the students' motivation, flow experience, self-efficacy for technology, self-efficacy for science, feelings about the TPC game, and satisfaction with the learning approach. The findings showed that the students in the experimental group achieved better flow experience, learning performance, and satisfaction.

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Breast cancer stem-like cells (BCSCs) are implicated in cancer recurrence and metastasis of triple negative breast cancer (TNBC). We have recently discovered that ganglioside GD2 expression defines BCSCs and that ST8SIA1 regulates GD2 expression and BCSC function. In this report, we show that ST8SIA1 is highly expressed in primary TNBC; its expression is positively correlated with the expression of several BCSC associated genes such as BCL11A, FOXC1, CXCR4, PDGFRβ, SOX2 and mutations in p53. CRISPR knockout of ST8SIA1 completely inhibited BCSC functions, including in vitro tumorigenesis and mammosphere formation. Mechanistic studies discovered activation of the FAK-AKT-mTOR signaling pathway in GD2+ BCSCs, and its tight regulation by ST8SIA1. Finally, knockout of ST8SIA1 completely blocked in vivo tumor growth and metastasis by TNBC cells. In summary, this data demonstrates the mechanism by which ST8SIA1 regulates tumor growth and metastasis in TNBC and identifies it as a novel therapeutic target.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to analyze the extant human resource development (HRD) definition research literature and theorizes a new definition of HRD. Design/methodology/approach The authors adopted keyword and content analyses to examine selected 32 HRD definitions in relation to different organizational and sociopolitical contexts base on theory development criteria and methodology for definition research. Findings From a theoretical perspective, the extant definitions were mostly empirical descriptions of HRD practice with conceptualization being absent. From a context perspective, the definitions were based on HRD phenomena indigenous to the western world, especially the USA and Western Europe. They can hardly explain HRD phenomena in a non-western context. The glaring gaps lead to theorizing a new definition by focusing on the hard core of HRD in defining and criterial attributes. The defining attribute of HRD is its host-system-dependence, and the criterial attributes are its shaping and skilling mechanisms. Research limitations/implications This study unveils that HRD is a means to support the ends defined by the corresponding host system, and not an end in itself. This definition is applicable to different sociopolitical, cultural, and organizational contexts. It provides clear criteria and boundaries to gauge the relevance of HRD research and shows the unique identity of HRD, thus offering new directions to expand the landscape of HRD research. Practical implications The new definition can help human resources practitioners better understand the role and mechanism of HRD that the worldwide practitioners can resonate in various sociocultural and political contexts. Communicating the definition and goals of HRD will enhance internal clients’ understanding and appreciation of the value of HRD. Originality/value This study fills important research gaps in HRD definition research. It is the first HRD definition derived through a rigorous theory development process. The new definition connects the HRD research niche to the general human resource literature and lead to new HRD research.