The contribution of motorized traffic to air pollution is widely recognized, but relatively few studies have looked at the respiratory health status of subjects living near busy roads. We studied children in six areas located near major motorways in the Netherlands. We measured lung function in the children, and we assessed their exposure to traffic-related air pollution using separate traffic counts for automobiles and trucks. We also measured air pollution in the children's schools. Lung function was associated with truck traffic density but had a lesser association with automobile traffic density. The association was stronger in children living closest (< 300 m) to the motorways. Lung function was also associated with the concentration of black smoke, measured inside the schools, as a proxy for diesel exhaust particles. The associations were stronger in girls than in boys. The results indicate that exposure to traffic-related air pollution, in particular diesel exhaust particles, may lead to reduced lung function in children living near major motorways.

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Background-Daily variations in ambient particulate air pollution have been associated with cardiovascular mortality and morbidity. We therefore assessed the associations between levels of the 3 main modes of urban aerosol distribution and the occurrence of ST-segment depressions during repeated exercise tests. Methods and Results-Repeated biweekly submaximal exercise tests were performed during 6 months among adult subjects with stable coronary heart disease in Helsinki, Finland. Seventy-two exercise-induced ST-segment depressions Ͼ0.1 mV occurred during 342 exercise tests among 45 subjects. Simultaneously, particle mass Ͻ2.5 m (PM2.5) and the number concentrations of ultrafine particles (particle diameter 10 to 100 nm [NC 0.01-0.1 ]) and accumulation mode particles (100 to 1000 nm [NC 0.1-1 ]) were monitored at a central site. Levels of particulate air pollution 2 days before the clinic visit were significantly associated with increased risk of ST-segment depression during exercise test. The association was most consistent for measures of particles reflecting accumulation mode particles (odds ratio 3.29; 95% CI, 1.57 to 6.92 for NC 0.1-1 and 2.84; 95% CI, 1.42 to 5.66 for PM2.5), but ultrafine particles also had an effect (odds ratio 3.14; 95% CI, 1.56 to 6.32), which was independent of PM2.5. Also, gaseous pollutants NO 2 and CO were associated with an increased risk for ST-segment depressions. No consistent association was observed for coarse particles. The associations tended to be stronger among subjects who did not use ␤-blockers. Conclusions-The present results suggest that the effect of particulate air pollution on cardiovascular morbidity is at least partly mediated through increased susceptibility to myocardial ischemia. (Circulation. 2002;106:933-938.)

Previous studies have shown an association between elevated concentrations of particulate air pollution and cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. Therefore, the association between daily variation of ultrafine and fine particulate air pollution and cardiac autonomic control measured as heart rate variability (HRV) was studied in a large multicenter study in Amsterdam, the Netherlands, Erfurt, Germany, and Helsinki, Finland. Elderly subjects (n=37 in Amsterdam, n=47 in both Erfurt and Helsinki) with stable coronary artery disease were followed for 6 months with biweekly clinical visits. During the visits, ambulatory electrocardiogram was recorded during a standardized protocol including a 5-min period of paced breathing. Time and frequency domain analyses of HRV were performed. A statistical model was built for each center separately. The mean 24-h particle number concentration (NC) (1,000/cm(3)) of ultrafine particles (diameter 0.01-0.1 microm) was 17.3 in Amsterdam, 21.1 in Erfurt, and 17.0 in Helsinki. The corresponding values for PM2.5 were 20.0, 23.1, and 12.7 microg/m(3). During paced breathing, ultrafine particles, NO(2), and CO were at lags of 0-2 days consistently and significantly associated with decreased low-to-high frequency ratio (LF/HF), a measure of sympathovagal balance. In a pooled analysis across the centers, LF/HF decreased by 13.5% (95% confidence interval: -20.1%, -7.0%) for each 10,000/cm(3) increase in the NC of ultrafine particles (2-day lag). PM2.5 was associated with reduced HF and increased LF/HF in Helsinki, whereas the opposite was true in Erfurt, and in Amsterdam, there were no clear associations between PM2.5 and HRV. The results suggest that the cardiovascular effects of ambient ultrafine and PM2.5 can differ from each other and that their effect may be modified by the characteristics of the exposed subjects and the sources of PM2.5.

The number of ultrafine particles may be a more health relevant characteristic of ambient particulate matter than the conventionally measured mass. Epidemiological time series studies typically use a central site to characterize human exposure to outdoor air pollution. There is currently very limited information how well measurements at a central site reflect temporal and spatial variation across an urban area for particle number concentrations (PNC). The main objective of the study was to assess the spatial variation of PNC compared to the mass concentration of particles with diameter less than 10 or 2.5 mm (PM 10 and PM 2.5). Continuous measurements of PM 10 , PM 2.5 , PNC and soot concentrations were conducted at a central site during October 2002-March 2004 in four cities spread over Europe (Amsterdam, Athens, Birmingham and Helsinki). The same measurements were conducted directly outside 152 homes spread over the metropolitan areas. Each home was monitored during 1 week. We assessed the temporal correlation and the variability of absolute concentrations. For all particle indices, including particle number, temporal correlation of 24-h average concentrations was high. The median correlation for PNC per city ranged between 0.67 and 0.76. For PM 2.5 median correlation ranged between 0.79 and

Given the hypothesis that air pollution is associated with elevated blood pressure and heart rate, the effect of daily concentrations of air pollution on blood pressure and heart rate was assessed in 131 adults with coronary heart disease in Helsinki, Finland; Erfurt, Germany; and Amsterdam, the Netherlands. Blood pressure was measured by a digital monitor, and heart rate was calculated as beats per minute from an electrocardiogram recording with the patient in supine position. Particle concentrations were measured at central measuring sites. Linear regression was used to model the association between 24-hr mean concentrations of particles and blood pressure and heart rate. Estimates were adjusted for trend, day of week, temperature, barometric pressure, relative humidity, and medication use. Pooled effect estimates showed a small significant decrease in diastolic and systolic blood pressure in association with particulate air pollution; a slight decrease in heart rate was found. Of the three centers, Erfurt revealed the most consistent particle effects. The results do not support findings from previous studies that had shown an increase in blood pressure and heart rate in healthy individuals in association with particles. However, particle effects might differ in cardiac patients because of medication intake and disease status, both affecting the autonomic control of the heart. Key words: autonomic control, blood pressure, cardiovascular disease, fine and ultrafine particles, heart rate. Environmental Medicine Article clinical visits once every 2 weeks and daily recording of symptoms and medication use. Subjects who were included in the study had to be free-dwelling nonsmokers and ≥ 50 years of age with doctor-diagnosed coronary heart disease. Subjects with a recent (< 3 months) cardiac event such as myocardial infarction, stroke, coronary artery bypass graft, or percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty (PTCA) were excluded from the panels. Other exclusion criteria were unstable angina pectoris and type 1 diabetes mellitus. Subjects were examined by a physician to exclude persons who were too ill, unable to perform the exercise challenge, or likely to have problems with the study for other reasons. The subjects were characterized by a questionnaire and a recording of a 12-lead standard resting electrocardiogram (ECG).In Amsterdam, panelists were recruited by sending out information letters and screening questionnaires to retirement homes. Because the response was low, a newspaper advertisement was used and letters were distributed in areas mainly inhabited by senior citizens to enroll more subjects. Finally, subjects were recruited via the department of cardiology of the academic medical center. In Erfurt, the study population was recruited through a local cardiologist. In Helsinki, subjects were recruited by an advertisement in the journal of a patient organization of the Finnish Heart Association. Furthermore, information letters were distributed to members of the association with the postal code of the...

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Toxicological studies have provided evidence of the toxicity of ultrafine particles (UFP), but epidemiological evidence for health effects of ultrafines is limited. No quantitative summary currently exists of concentration-response functions for ultrafine particles that can be used in health impact assessment. The goal was to specify concentration-response functions for ultrafine particles in urban air including their uncertainty through an expert panel elicitation. Eleven European experts from the disciplines of epidemiology, toxicology, and clinical medicine selected using a systematic peer-nomination procedure participated. Using individual ratings supplemented with group discussion, probability distributions of effect estimates were obtained for all-cause mortality and cardiovascular and respiratory hospital admissions. Experts judged the small database of epidemiological studies supplemented with experimental studies sufficient to quantify effects of UFP on all-cause mortality and to a lesser extent hospital admissions. Substantial differences in the estimated UFP health effect and its uncertainty were found between experts. The lack of studies on long-term exposure to UFP was rated as the most important source of uncertainty. Effects on hospital admissions were considered more uncertain. This expert elicitation provides the first quantitative evaluation of estimates of concentration response functions between urban air ultrafine particles and all-cause mortality and hospital admissions.