No abstract

Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disease caused by the immune-mediated destruction of pancreatic b cells that results in lifelong absolute insulin deficiency. For nearly a century, insulin replacement has been the only therapy for most people living with this disease. Recent advances in technology and our understanding of b cell development, glucose metabolism, and the underlying immune pathogenesis of the disease have led to innovative therapeutic and preventative approaches. A paradigm shift in immunotherapy development toward the targeting of islet-specific immune pathways involved in tolerance has driven the development of therapies that may allow for the prevention or reversal of this disease while avoiding toxicities associated with historical approaches that were broadly immunosuppressive. In this review, we discuss successes, failures, and emerging pharmacological therapies for type 1 diabetes that are changing how we approach this disease, from improving glycemic control to developing the ''holy grail'' of disease prevention.

Treatment with liraglutide significantly improved insulin secretion, even in patients with long-standing T2D requiring high-dose insulin treatment. Liraglutide also decreased liver and sc fat, but it did not alter glucagon secretion.

IMPORTANCE An increasing number of patients with type 2 diabetes are treated with high doses of insulin. Such treatment is associated with weight gain, hypoglycemia, and high treatment burden. OBJECTIVE To assess the effectiveness and safety of adding a glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonist to the treatment regimen of patients with type 2 diabetes requiring therapy with high-dose insulin. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS This clinical trial was a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized (1:1) study with 6 months of follow-up, conducted from August 13, 2012, to February 9, 2015, at ambulatory clinics at the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center and Parkland Hospital. Participants were 71 patients with uncontrolled type 2 diabetes (glycated hemoglobin level, 7.5%-11.0%) using more than 1.5 U/kg/d of insulin. INTERVENTIONS Subcutaneous injection of liraglutide (1.8 mg/d) or matching placebo for 6 months. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES The primary outcome was the change in glycated hemoglobin level. Secondary outcomes were changes in weight, hypoglycemia rate, insulin dosage, and quality-of-life measures. RESULTS Among 71 patients, 45 (63%) were female. The mean (SD) age of patients was 54.2 (7.4) years, with a mean (SD) type 2 diabetes duration of 17.9 (8.4) years and a mean (SD) total daily dose of insulin of 247.0 (95.1) U. Ninety-three percent (66 of 71) of participants completed all scheduled visits. The glycated hemoglobin level improved from a mean (SD) of 9.0% (1.2%) to 7.9% (1.1%) in the liraglutide group (P < .001) and remained unchanged (8.9%) in the placebo group, with an estimated treatment difference of 0.9% (95% CI, −1.5 to −0.4) (P = .002). Weight decreased from a mean (SD) of 114.6 (21.4) kg to 113.6 (20.8) kg in the liraglutide group vs a mean (SD) increase from 116.1 (26.6) kg to 117.2 (27.2) kg in the placebo group, with a treatment difference of −2.3 kg (95% CI, −4.3 to −0.4 kg) (P = .02). The total daily dose of insulin decreased 11.5% (95% CI, −21.8% to −1.1%) in the liraglutide group (P = .20). The hypoglycemia rate was higher in the first month after initiation of liraglutide compared with placebo (2.30 vs 0.91 events per person-month, P = .01), while the overall hypoglycemia rate over the entire follow-up was similar between groups (P = .11). Glycemia control perception, satisfaction with insulin treatment, and willingness to continue insulin use improved more in the liraglutide group. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE Liraglutide added to high-dose insulin therapy improved glycemic control, decreased body weight, and enhanced treatment satisfaction in this difficult-to-treat patient population with high-dose insulin requirements. Further studies are warranted to confirm these findings and evaluate the long-term risk and benefit of this treatment option. TRIAL REGISTRATION clinicaltrials.gov Identifier: NCT01505673

Pioglitazone in individuals with MetS induces a potent decrease in plasma ceramides, and some of the changes correlate with changes in insulin resistance and adiponectin levels.