Functional brain maps were first delineated in two dimensions 80 years ago. By analysing stimulation and intracranial EEG data from 100 patients with epilepsy, Nakai et al. generate 3D and 4D language maps incorporating space, time and causality. These whole-brain maps allow prediction of language areas for patients undergoing neurosurgery.

Our observation provides the mechanistic rationale for transient scotoma or mild flash-blindness, characterized by physiological afterimage preferentially formed in central vision following intense but non-injurious light exposure.