TET2 is a close relative of TET1, an enzyme that converts 5-methylcytosine (5-mC) to 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5-hmC) in DNA1,2. The gene encoding TET2 resides at chromosome 4q24, in a region showing recurrent microdeletions and copy-neutral loss of heterozygosity (CN-LOH) in patients with diverse myeloid malignancies3. Somatic TET2 mutations are frequently observed in myelodysplastic syndromes (MDS), myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPN), MDS/MPN overlap syndromes including chronic myelomonocytic leukemia (CMML), acute myeloid leukemias (AML) and secondary AML (sAML)4–12. We show here that TET2 mutations associated with myeloid malignancies compromise TET2 catalytic activity. Bone marrow samples from patients with TET2 mutations displayed uniformly low levels of 5-hmC in genomic DNA compared to bone marrow samples from healthy controls. Moreover, small hairpin RNA (shRNA)-mediated depletion of Tet2 in mouse haematopoietic precursors skewed their differentiation towards monocyte/macrophage lineages in culture. There was no significant difference in DNA methylation between bone marrow samples from patients with high 5-hmC versus healthy controls, but samples from patients with low 5-hmC showed hypomethylation relative to controls at the majority of differentially-methylated CpG sites. Our results demonstrate that TET2 is important for normal myelopoiesis, and suggest that disruption of TET2 enzymatic activity favours myeloid tumorigenesis. Measurement of 5-hmC levels in myeloid malignancies may prove valuable as a diagnostic and prognostic tool, to tailor therapies and assess responses to anti-cancer drugs.

The Ten-Eleven-Translocation 2 (TET2) gene encodes a member of TET family enzymes that alters the epigenetic status of DNA by oxidizing 5-methylcytosine to 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5hmC). Somatic loss-of-function mutations of TET2 are frequently observed in patients with diverse myeloid malignancies, including myelodysplastic syndromes, myeloproliferative neoplasms, and chronic myelomonocytic leukemia. By analyzing mice with targeted disruption of the Tet2 catalytic domain, we show here that Tet2 is a critical regulator of self-renewal and differentiation of hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs). Tet2 deficiency led to decreased genomic levels of 5hmC and augmented the size of the hematopoietic stem/ progenitor cell pool in a cell-autonomous manner. In competitive transplantation assays, Tet2-deficient HSCs were capable of multilineage reconstitution and possessed a competitive advantage over wild-type HSCs, resulting in enhanced hematopoiesis into both lymphoid and myeloid lineages. In vitro, Tet2 deficiency delayed HSC differentiation and skewed development toward the monocyte/macrophage lineage. Our data indicate that Tet2 has a critical role in regulating the expansion and function of HSCs, presumably by controlling 5hmC levels at genes important for the self-renewal, proliferation, and differentiation of HSCs.

TET (Ten-Eleven-Translocation) proteins are Fe(II) and α-ketoglutarate-dependent dioxygenases1-3 that modify the methylation status of DNA by successively oxidizing 5-methylcytosine (5mC) to 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5hmC), 5-formylcytosine and 5-carboxycytosine1,3-5, potential intermediates in the active erasure of DNA methylation marks5,6. We show here that IDAX/ CXXC4, a player in the Wnt signaling pathway7 that has been implicated in malignant renal cell carcinoma8 and colonic villous adenoma9, functions as a negative regulator of TET2 protein expression. IDAX/ CXXC4 was originally encoded within an ancestral TET2 gene that underwent a chromosomal gene inversion during evolution, thus separating the TET2 CXXC domain from the catalytic domain. The Idax CXXC domain binds DNA sequences containing unmethylated CpGs, localises to promoters and CpG islands in genomic DNA, and interacts directly with the catalytic domain of Tet2. Unexpectedly, Idax expression resulted in caspase activation and Tet2 protein downregulation, in a manner that depended on DNA-binding through the Idax CXXC domain. Idax depletion prevented Tet2 downregulation in differentiating mouse embryonic stem (ES) cells, and shRNA against IDAX increased TET2 protein expression in the human monocytic cell line U937. Notably, we find that the expression and activity of TET3 are also regulated through its CXXC domain. Taken together, these results establish the separate and linked CXXC domains of TET2 and TET3 respectively as novel regulators of caspase activation and TET enzymatic activity.

Summary DNA methylation has pivotal regulatory roles in mammalian development, retrotransposon silencing, genomic imprinting and X-chromosome inactivation. Cancer cells display highly dysregulated DNA methylation profiles characterized by global hypomethylation in conjunction with hypermethylation of promoter CpG islands (CGIs) that presumably lead to genome instability and aberrant expression of tumor suppressor genes or oncogenes. The recent discovery of Ten-Eleven-Translocation (TET) family dioxygenases that oxidize 5mC to 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5hmC), 5-formylcytosine (5fC) and 5-carboxylcytosine (5caC) in DNA has led to profound progress in understanding the mechanism underlying DNA demethylation. Among the three TET genes, TET2 recurrently undergoes inactivating mutations in a wide range of myeloid and lymphoid malignancies. TET2 functions as a bona fide tumor suppressor particularly in the pathogenesis of myeloid malignancies resembling chronic myelomoncytic leukemia (CMML) and myelodysplastic syndromes (MDS) in human. Here we review diverse functions of TET proteins and the novel epigenetic marks that they generate in DNA methylation/demethylation dynamics and normal and malignant hematopoietic differentiation. The impact of TET2 inactivation in hematopoiesis and various mechanisms modulating the expression or activity of TET proteins are also discussed. Furthermore, we also present evidence that TET2 and TET3 collaborate to suppress aberrant hematopoiesis and hematopoietic transformation. A detailed understanding of the normal and pathological functions of TET proteins may provide new avenues to develop novel epigenetic therapies for treating hematological malignancies.

TET-family dioxygenases oxidize 5-methylcytosine (5mC) in DNA, and exert tumour suppressor activity in many types of cancers. Even in the absence of TET coding region mutations, TET loss-of-function is strongly associated with cancer. Here we show that acute elimination of TET function induces the rapid development of an aggressive, fully-penetrant and cell-autonomous myeloid leukaemia in mice, pointing to a causative role for TET loss-of-function in this myeloid malignancy. Phenotypic and transcriptional profiling shows aberrant differentiation of haematopoietic stem/progenitor cells, impaired erythroid and lymphoid differentiation and strong skewing to the myeloid lineage, with only a mild relation to changes in DNA modification. We also observe progressive accumulation of phospho-H2AX and strong impairment of DNA damage repair pathways, suggesting a key role for TET proteins in maintaining genome integrity.

The methylation of cytosine and subsequent oxidation constitutes a fundamental epigenetic modification in mammalian genomes, and its abnormalities are intimately coupled to various pathogenic processes including cancer development. Enzymes of the Ten–eleven translocation (TET) family catalyze the stepwise oxidation of 5-methylcytosine in DNA to 5-hydroxymethylcytosine and further oxidation products. These oxidized 5-methylcytosine derivatives represent intermediates in the reversal of cytosine methylation, and also serve as stable epigenetic modifications that exert distinctive regulatory roles. It is becoming increasingly obvious that TET proteins and their catalytic products are key regulators of embryonic development, stem cell functions and lineage specification. Over the past several years, the function of TET proteins as a barrier between normal and malignant states has been extensively investigated. Dysregulation of TET protein expression or function is commonly observed in a wide range of cancers. Notably, TET loss-of-function is causally related to the onset and progression of hematologic malignancy in vivo. In this review, we focus on recent advances in the mechanistic understanding of DNA methylation–demethylation dynamics, and their potential regulatory functions in cellular differentiation and oncogenic transformation.

Maintenance of the balance of DNA methylation and demethylation is fundamental for normal cellular development and function. Members of the Ten-Eleven-Translocation (TET) family proteins are Fe(II)- and 2-oxoglutarate-dependent dioxygenases that catalyze sequential oxidation of 5-methylcytosine (5mC) to 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5hmC) and subsequent oxidized derivatives in DNA. In addition to their roles as intermediates in DNA demethylation, these oxidized methylcytosines are novel epigenetic modifications of DNA. DNA methylation and hydroxymethylation profiles are markedly disrupted in a wide range of cancers but how these changes are related to the pathogenesis of cancers is still ambiguous. In this review, we discuss the current understanding of TET protein functions in normal and malignant hematopoietic development and the ongoing questions to be resolved.

Many DNA repair proteins have additional functions other than their roles in DNA repair. In addition to catalyzing PCNA polyubiquitylation in response to the stalling of DNA replication, SHPRH has the additional function of facilitating rRNA transcription by localizing to the ribosomal DNA (rDNA) promoter in the nucleoli. SHPRH was recruited to the rDNA promoter using its plant homeodomain (PHD), which interacts with histone H3 when the fourth lysine of H3 is not trimethylated. SHPRH enrichment at the rDNA promoter was inhibited by cell starvation, by treatment with actinomycin D or rapamycin, or by depletion of CHD4. SHPRH also physically interacted with the RNA polymerase I complex. Taken together, we provide evidence that SHPRH functions in rRNA transcription through its interaction with histone H3 in a mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR)-dependent manner.SHPRH | rRNA transcription | histone H3 methylation | mTOR H uman ribosomal DNA (rDNA) is composed of hundreds of tandem repeats of 42.9-kb rDNA units that are organized into transcribed and intergenic regions (1). About one-half the 47S precursor ribosomal RNA (pre-rRNA) genes are actively transcribed, and the other half remain silent (2, 3). Transcription, processing of rRNA, and the assembly of ribosomes take place in the nucleoli (2, 4). Once transcribed in the nucleoli, pre-rRNA is immediately processed into small mature 28S, 18S, and 5.8S rRNAs that, together with ribosomal proteins, make a ribosome. Tight regulation of ribosome biogenesis, including rRNA transcription and synthesis of ribosomal proteins, is important in many biological processes such as cell proliferation, apoptosis, and autophagy (5-7), and is closely associated with metabolic processes. Because of its importance in many metabolic pathways, dysregulation of ribosomal biogenesis is linked to aging and diverse diseases, including anemia and cancers (8-12). 47S pre-rRNA is transcribed by the RNA polymerase I complex, whose activity is controlled by cellular responses to nutritional states, cellular stresses, growth, differentiation, and cell cycle (9). Posttranslational modifications of transcription factors, for example, phosphorylation of upstream binding factor (UBF), help regulate rRNA transcription (13). In addition to posttranslational modifications of transcription factors, nucleolar remodeling complex, NuRD (nucleosome remodeling and deacetylation) complex, and energy-dependent nucleolar silencing complex also affect rRNA transcription by modifying epigenetic signatures of rDNA, as well as histones in the rDNA promoter (14-16). In addition to conventional active and silent histone signatures, the rDNA promoter has another histone signature called a poised state. CHD4 and CSB-containing NuRD complex establish a poised chromatin signature of rDNA that represses but primes rRNA transcription by marking histone H3 with both active (H3 K4me3) and inactive (H3 K27me3) modifications (16). However, it is unclear how these epigenetic changes control the transcription of rRNA.The mammali...