Summary TXNIP is an α-arrestin family protein that is induced in response to glucose elevation. It has been shown to provide a negative feedback loop to regulate glucose uptake into cells, though the biochemical mechanism of action has been obscure. Here, we report that TXNIP suppresses glucose uptake directly by binding to the glucose transporter, Glut1, inducing Glut1 internalization through clathrin coated pits, as well as indirectly by reducing the level of Glut1 mRNA. In addition, we show that energy stress results in phosphorylation of TXNIP by AMP-dependent protein kinase (AMPK), leading to its rapid degradation. This suppression of TXNIP results in an acute increase in Glut1 function and an increase in Glut1 mRNA (hence total protein levels) for long-term adaptation. The glucose influx through GLUT1 restores ATP/ADP ratios in the short run and ultimately induces TXNIP protein production to suppress glucose uptake once energy homeostasis is reestablished.

SUMMARY Growth factors, such as insulin, can induce both acute and long-term glucose uptake into cells. Apart from the rapid, insulin-induced fusion of glucose transporter(GLUT)4 storage vesicles with the cell surface that occurs in muscle and adipose tissues, the mechanism behind acute induction has been unclear in other systems. Thioredoxin interacting protein (TXNIP) has been shown to be a negative regulator of cellular glucose uptake. TXNIP is transcriptionally induced by glucose and reduces glucose influx by promoting GLUT1 endocytosis. Here, we report that TXNIP is a direct substrate of protein kinase B (AKT) and is responsible for mediating AKT-dependent acute glucose influx after growth factor stimulation. Furthermore, TXNIP functions as an adaptor for the basal endocytosis of GLUT4 in vivo, its absence allows excess glucose uptake in muscle and adipose tissues, causing hypoglycemia during fasting. Altogether, TXNIP serves as a key node of signal regulation and response for modulating glucose influx through GLUT1 and GLUT4.

Summary Lower adipose-ChREBP and de novo lipogenesis (DNL) are associated with insulin resistance in humans. Here we generated adipose-specific ChREBP knockout (AdChREBP KO) mice with negligible sucrose-induced DNL in adipose tissue (AT). Chow-fed AdChREBP KO mice are insulin-resistant with impaired insulin action in liver, muscle and AT, and increased AT inflammation. HFD-fed AdChREBP KO mice are also more insulin-resistant than controls. Surprisingly, adipocytes lacking ChREBP display a cell-autonomous reduction in insulin-stimulated glucose transport which is mediated by impaired Glut4 translocation and exocytosis, not lower Glut4 levels.. AdChREBP KO mice have lower levels of palmitic acid esters of hydroxy stearic acids (PAHSAs) in serum and AT. 9-PAHSA supplementation completely rescues their insulin resistance and AT inflammation. 9-PAHSA also normalizes impaired glucose transport and Glut4 exocytosis in ChREBP KO adipocytes. Thus, loss of adipose-ChREBP is sufficient to cause insulin resistance potentially by regulating AT glucose transport and flux through specific lipogenic pathways.

dGlucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP), an incretin hormone secreted from gastrointestinal K cells in response to food intake, has an important role in the control of whole-body metabolism. GIP signals through activation of the GIP receptor (GIPR), a G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR). Dysregulation of this pathway has been implicated in the development of metabolic disease. Here we demonstrate that GIPR is constitutively trafficked between the plasma membrane and intracellular compartments of both GIP-stimulated and unstimulated adipocytes. GIP induces a downregulation of plasma membrane GIPR by slowing GIPR recycling without affecting internalization kinetics. This transient reduction in the expression of GIPR in the plasma membrane correlates with desensitization to the effects of GIP. A naturally occurring variant of GIPR (E354Q) associated with an increased incidence of insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular disease in humans responds to GIP stimulation with an exaggerated downregulation from the plasma membrane and a delayed recovery of GIP sensitivity following cessation of GIP stimulation. This perturbation in the desensitization-resensitization cycle of the GIPR variant, revealed in studies of cultured adipocytes, may contribute to the link of the E354Q variant to metabolic disease. G lucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) is secreted by K cells of the gastrointestinal tract in response to food (1, 2). GIP together with the other incretin hormone, glucagon-like peptide 1, have prominent roles in the control of wholebody energy metabolism. A primary function of these hormones is to stimulate glucose-dependent insulin release from pancreatic beta cells (3-5). In addition to its effect on the pancreas, GIP functions to regulate several aspects of adipocyte metabolism, including increasing the sensitivity of adipocytes to insulin, thereby setting the tone for an optimal insulin response (e.g., see references 6-13). GIP signals through the GIP receptor (GIPR), a Gprotein-coupled receptor (GPCR) coupled to the stimulatory G alpha subunit and elevated cyclic AMP (cAMP) levels (4,14,15).In individuals with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), GIP-mediated insulinotropic effects are attenuated despite normal to elevated levels of blood . This GIP resistance potentially contributes to the pathophysiology of T2DM. The importance of GIP function in metabolic homeostasis is highlighted by the discovery in genome-wide association studies of a number of single nucleotide polymorphisms in the GIPR gene linked to an increased risk of metabolic diseases, including insulin resistance, T2DM, and cardiovascular diseases (19-21). One of these variants results in the substitution of glutamine for glutamic acid at position 354 (E354Q) of GIPR, which has been shown in various studies to be associated with insulin resistance (22), cardiovascular disease (21), and defects in beta-cell function (23).Despite extensive characterization of GIP's effects on metabolism, little is known about the beha...

In calcific aortic valve disease (CAVD), microcalcifications originating from nanoscale calcifying vesicles disrupt the aortic valve (AV) leaflets, which consist of three (biomechanically) distinct layers: the fibrosa, spongiosa, and ventricularis. CAVD has no pharmacotherapy and lacks in vitro models as a result of complex valvular biomechanical features surrounding resident mechanosensitive valvular interstitial cells (VICs). We measured layer-specific mechanical properties of the human AV and engineered a three-dimensional (3D)-bioprinted CAVD model that recapitulates leaflet layer biomechanics for the first time. Human AV leaflet layers were separated by microdissection, and nanoindentation determined layer-specific Young’s moduli. Methacrylated gelatin (GelMA)/methacrylated hyaluronic acid (HAMA) hydrogels were tuned to duplicate layer-specific mechanical characteristics, followed by 3D-printing with encapsulated human VICs. Hydrogels were exposed to osteogenic media (OM) to induce microcalcification, and VIC pathogenesis was assessed by near infrared or immunofluorescence microscopy. Median Young’s moduli of the AV layers were 37.1, 15.4, and 26.9 kPa (fibrosa/spongiosa/ventricularis, respectively). The fibrosa and spongiosa Young’s moduli matched the 3D 5% GelMa/1% HAMA UV-crosslinked hydrogels. OM stimulation of VIC-laden bioprinted hydrogels induced microcalcification without apoptosis. We report the first layer-specific measurements of human AV moduli and a novel 3D-bioprinted CAVD model that potentiates microcalcification by mimicking the native AV mechanical environment. This work sheds light on valvular mechanobiology and could facilitate high-throughput drug-screening in CAVD.