Humans may help others even in situations where the recipient will not reciprocate [1-5]. In some cases, such behavior can be explained by the helpers increasing their image score, which will increase the probability that bystanders will help them in the future [5-7]. For other animals, the notion that many interactions take place in an environment containing an audience of eavesdropping bystanders has also been proposed to have important consequences for social behavior, including levels of cooperation [8]. However, experimental evidence is currently restricted to the demonstration that cleaner fish Labroides dimidiatus can learn to solve a foraging task [9]. The cleaners learned to feed against their preference on artificial clients if that allowed them to access additional artificial clients, which would translate into cooperatively eating ectoparasites rather than cheating by eating client mucus under natural conditions [10]. Here we show that cleaners immediately increase current levels of cooperation in the presence of bystander client reef fish. Furthermore, we find that bystanders respond to any occurrence of cleaners cheating their current client with avoidance. In conclusion, the results demonstrate, for the first time, that image scoring by an audience indeed leads to increased levels of cooperation in a nonhuman animal.
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AbstractIntroduction: 'Expertise by experience' is a highly valued element of service delivery in recoveryoriented mental health care, but is unacknowledged within the mental health nursing literature.Aim: To explore the extent and influence of mental health professionals' personal experience of mental ill health on clinical practice.Method: Twenty seven mental health nurses with their own personal experience of mental ill health were interviewed about how their personal experience informed their mental health nursing practice, as part of a sequential mixed methods study.Results: The influence of personal experience in nursing work was threefold: first, through overt disclosure; second, through the 'use of the self as a tool'; third, through the formation of professional nursing identity.Discussion: Mental health nurses' experience of mental illness was contextualised by other life experiences and by particular therapeutic relationships and clinical settings. In previous empirical studies nurses have cited personal experience of mental illness as a motivator and an aspect of their identity. In this study there was also an association between personal experience and enhanced nursing expertise.Implications for practice: If drawing on personal experience is commonplace, then we must address the taboo of disclosure and debate the extent to which personal and professional boundaries are negotiated during clinical encounters.
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